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In the time of approximately five-hundred B.C., the city of Athens was developing into a cultural and physical centerpiece on the mainland of Greece. Intellectual thought was evolving into an open forum of novel ideas and concepts that were interesting and peculiar to one and all. Philosophy was being spearheaded by such men as Anaxagoras, Protagoras and Empedocles. The theatre was starting to take shape and gain popularity under the care of Aescylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Pericles was the ruler of Athens, and he would lead Athens to its preverbial peak, only to succumb to the plague in 428 B.C. Pericles would bring Athens together synthesizing the high side of society with the low.
The last of the three tragic dramatists was Euripides. He was born around 484 B.C., and it is important to note that Euripides associated extensively with the philosophers of his time. He was a student of Anaxagoras himself, and also mulled over ideas with other philosophers such as Protagoras and Prodicus. Mainly, however, Euripides ideas and thoughts were shaped from the lessons he learned while under the tutoring of Anaxagoras. " His acquaintenece with new ideas brought him restlessness rather than conviction. "- Encyclopedia Britanica. The influence that Anaxagoras had on Euripides work is immensely evident in his tragic plays The Medea and Electra.
Anaxagoras arrived in Athens in 480 B.C. and it is well documented that he was good friends with Pericles. He was one of the last pre-socratic philosophers and shared many similar ideas to Socrates himself. Anaxagoras quickly separated himself from his predecesors and peers by his views on astronomy. Anaxagoras' ideas about cosmology were simply later stages of developement from the earlier philosophers. Parmenides' theory consisted of everything evolving from one single entity. Empedocles believed that four basic elements are what constituted the universe. Anaxagoras, however, took these theories one step further. He envisioned an infinite number of things making up the universe.
Anaxagoras' influence on Euripides
The cosmology of Anaxagoras is not what young Euripides was looking for when he sought out the philosopher for instruction. Euripides acquired some of his tragic playwrighting themes from the basic concept of Anaxagoras' Mind. This idea that the mind is in itself combined with nothing else, is clearly a strong presence in the plays of Euripides. In fact, Euripides ideal man is one who can master the idea that Anaxagoras presents in his model of mind(or in Greek: Nous). It is through his work that the audience can see the example of characters who allow their idea of mind to carry them too far. In The Medea, Jason and Medea are two prime examples of this fact. In Electra, it is Electra and Orestes. It is clear that these characters are created with the influence of Anaxagoras' "Nous" theory as an attempt to proove that the mind is always in control, yet does not always act ethically. Anaxagoras' concept </A>that the mind doesn't act ethically or without renunciation was the major critcism of the philosopher by Aristotle. Euripides' angle on this theme is the fact that these two plays are tales of vengance and vindication. Euripides enables his characters to control the action throught their respective powers of mind. However, Euripides demonstrates that the mind works without any idea of right or wrong(i.e. ethics) through the hideous murders and atrocities committed by his sinful characters.
One of Euripides tragedies that was directly influenced by Anaxagoras was Electra. This is a story of the children of Agamemnon, the heroic King of ancient Greece. Electra is Agamemnon's daughter and is bitter that her mother Clytemnestra has murdered her father upon his return from the Trojan War. While Agamemnon was off fighting, Clytemnestra had an affair with Aegisthus, and the play is a tragic tale of revenge of the siblings upon their mother. Electra and her brother Orestes, and the vengence they seek are the focus of the play.
Interestingly, Sophocles also wrote a play entitled Electra. Sophocles work, however, is different than the work of Euripides by the same name.
"It is a play of very different mood, brilliantly structured as drama, focussing more on the killing of Aegitsthus than the matricide, portraying Electra as heroic rather than pathological."(3pg.15)
Where Sophocles focusses more on the direct action that takes place such as murder, Anaxagoras' idea of mind brings forth the style that Euripides writes in. As the quote above states, it is clear that Electra would be more "pathological" as her motive would be influenced by her mind. The thought that Aristotle opposes that the mind does not have any idea of ethics or renunciation is justified with the idea of " matricide". Certainly a person who was guided by Nous with ethical beliefs could not murder their own mother!
There are many examples of the influence of the mind acting upon the characters in this play. One such example occurs when Orestes and Electra are discussing their plot to murder their own mother. Orestes is obviously troubled at the thought of destroying his own flesh and blood. However, Electra justifies her position by emphasizing the fact that by murdering Agamemnon, Clytemnestra has already sealed her own fate. As the two argue back and forth, the Anaxagoras point becomes apparent if not contreversial. It is almost as if Euripides has diagramed an argument between Anaxagoras' "Nous" and the Aristotlian counterpoint. Orestes is actually having thoughts of renunciation, and his thoughts at this point are ethical. This is not the case for Electra, who is allowing her mind to control her actions in the model of Euripides mentor.
Through the progression of the play, we see the vengeful Electra and the ideas that control her mind. When confronting her mother, her monologue to her reveals an interesting parallel. Electra accuses her mother's mind of not being healthy. A healthy mind would be one that acts with no intentions of "wrongful deeds" as displayed by the quote from Euripides above. The irony that comes through is strong because Clytemnestra has committed "wrongful deeds" as will Electra and Orestes. The mind controls all three in this effect and therefore they are all the same, none being better than the other.
The story of The Medea has a much similar theme to that of Electra. Violence through revenge is the main motivator of the tragic play. In this work the two main characters are Jason and his wife Medea. In contrast to the bitter vengance that Electra and Orestes sought for their father's death, Jason and Medea seek to better themselves through their partner's sufferings. First Jason leaves Medea to marry the daughter of King Creon. His motivation for this act was simply to allow himself to be in a position to be in line for a throne. Then, in order to avenge her self-embarassment, Medea executes a plot to murder Jason's new bride, King Creon and the children that she bore while she was with Jason. This is the depressing, tragic story of these two troubled people who commit act that are totally unethical, yet clearly influenced by the thoughts in their respective minds.
The influence of Anaxagoras in this particular work is all to obvious. Medea has been scorned, and her mind or "Nous" has convinced herself that murder is her only chance at revenge. This crazed woman carries out the death of her own children in order to satisfy her hurt feelings. These thoughts prompts a young messenger to ask " What! Are you in the right mind? Are you not mad woman?"(4pg.97) But what the simple-minded messenger doesn't know is the definition of "mind " that Euripides posseses. The fact of the matter is that it is not relevant to Euripides if Medea is " mad" or not; actually that is the point. Medea allows her mind to guide her, and her mind( just as the Anaxagoras model displays) is not moral. Jason's case is quite the same yet not on the same scale. He does not murder anyone but the crime of betrayal that he commits is equally offendable. "What luckier chance could I have come across than this, An exile to marry the daughter of a king?"(4pg.76) This is not an ethical statement, let alone an ethical action. But, much similar to Medea, Jason is acting a particular way because of the influence of his mind(Nous). His "Nous" knows no boundaries on the topic of ethics or just treatment; no idea of what is right or wrong. This is Anaxagoras' claim that is refuted by Aristotle. This is a direct influence on Euripides' characters in these plays. Jason and Medea have no concept of what is right or wrong, only what they must do to better their situations. Murder and betrayal are natural instincts to these people, all controled by the power of Anaxagoras' "Nous".
In both of the plays Electra and Medea the chorus has a large part in terms of interaction in the play itself. The chorus offers advice to the characters of the play throughout their many times of turmoil. The chorus becomes the opposing view of Anaxagoras' theme of "Nous". The chorus is offering the sane view of the world to rather insane characters.
In Electra, the chorus consults directly with Electra at the beginning of the play. The chorus begs the irate Electra to accept their offer to take the gods into her life and live peacefully. Electra retorts by reminding the chorus of her slain father. Her mind controls her idea of revenge. This example symbolizes the split in opinions of Aristotle and Euripides' mentor. On one hand we have the idea of sanity and the chance to be moral, yet on the other hand there is the idea of " a mind made up" theory as in the case of Electra herself. Another example occurs later in the play. In order to help Electra while there is still time to abort her villanous plot, the chorus advises Electra on where she should journey to. Once again she refuses and this time she engages in a conflict with the messenger.
The chorus in the Medea takes on a similar role to that of the play Electra. The group serves up advice for Jason after he makes his speech proclaiming his reasoning for leaving Medea in the first place. The chorus explains to him that he is not acting properly, yet he does not even respond and continues badmouthing his former lover. This example is consistent with the choral activity in the Electra. The chorus provides a sane view of the world, however is rejected by the characters who are controlled by mind. Again when Jason and Medea have one of their arguments, the chorus provides a helping opinion for the ghastly acts that will arise from this conflict.
The chorus provides the opposing viewpoint to that which is held by the characters of the plays but not Euripides himself.. These two men believe that people operate under the influence of mind, which is not necessarily the morally or ethically correct way to act. This idea is clearly evident in the characters that Euripides has created. The chorus is the last grasp of sanity for these already disturbed people. But this does not mean that the chorus is any better or worse than the characters, but the chorus' idea of "Nous" or mind is simply different than that of the characters. The chorus' mind tells them to act a certain way just as the mind of the players which actually makes these two factions somewhat similar.
The reason that Euripides is successful in his tragic plays is his ability to make the work appear real. Not realism of situations such as matricide, but his interpretation for the common person. For example, both the Electra and Medea were born from ancient myth. However, Euripides took these myths and scaled down the characters to make them into people that the average drama-seer could understand. Instead of searching for the famed " golden-fleece" Jason was now in adomestic dispute with a former lover. Most of the audience has had a dispute at one time or another, but has rarely ever searched for a golden fleece. Similarly in Electra, most everyone in the audience probably never had a father who was king of Greece and leader in the Trojan War. But quite possibly everyone had felt a desire for revenge after their own loved one had been treated unfairly or done wrong. Euripides presented his idea of "Nous" on a level that the common man could understand. In fact, the graphic nature of his tragedies probably made the idea of mind easier to understand. Sitting in the audience, experiencing the pain the characters were having as the respective plays developed, the theory that the mind controls actions however unethical must have been quite obvious. Anaxagoras' views were communicated by his pupil to the masses of Greece, and as aresult the men and the ideas were better understood.
1. Kirk, Raven, Schofield. The Presocratic Philosophers, 1991, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
2. Cleve, Felix M. The Philosophy of Anaxagoras, 1949, King's Crown Press, Columbia University, New York.
3. Greene, Lattimore and translated by Vermeule, Euripides V, 1966, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
4.Greene, Lattimore and translated by Warner, Euripides I, 1955, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
5.Ferguson, John. Euripides Medea and Electra, 1987, Bristol Classical Press, Bristol, Great Britian.
6.Lucas, F. L., Euripides and His Influence, 1963, Cooper Square Publishers Inc., New York.