Sappho's Legacy
The lyric poet Sappho herself could not have guessed at the significance of this particular line of poetry. She may have written this to be uttered to a special friend or it could have been part of a wedding song she composed. Whatever her original meaning, Sappho could not have made a more accurate assessment of her life and works. Centuries later, Sappho remains one of the most admired and controversial poets in literary history. There are critics on both sides of the issue: some vehemently condemn her "immorality" and discard her writing while others revere her as the mother of women's writing and modern lesbianism. Yet no matter what one's personal sentiments are, one cannot disregard the importance of Sappho as one of the only sources of women's lives from the point of view of a woman. Her life is an inspiration to many, especially women in the lesbian community, though her sexuality has been much debated. Sappho was a pioneer of women's expression, and the purpose of this paper is to explore why she is so cherished.
Many nineteenth and twentieth century women writers over the years have expressed anxieties of writing as women within the confines of a language constructed by men. Sappho must have faced similar difficulties in her time. Yet many critics point out that this bind may have enhanced her ability to create art. Jack Winkler says, "Because men define and exhibit their language and manners as the culture and segregate women's language and manners as a subculture, inaccessible to and protected from extra-familial men, women are in the position of knowing two cultures where men only know one" (Winkler 69). This unique perspective perhaps enabled Sappho to compose lyrics full of meaning that her male counterparts could not fully appreciate. Margaret Williamson also manages to find merit in the separation of men and women's spheres: "Debarred from the political power so strenuously figured in masculine love poetry, Sappho and her contemporaries also escape the hierarchies and exclusions that such power imposes on the world" (Williamson 130). By being confined to the "women's sphere," Sappho was able to construct verse that was indicative of women and their feelings. Ironically, before Sappho women did not participate in the creation of song, though later such "emotional" pursuits were seen to be typically "feminine."
During her time, Sappho was venerated almost as a literary goddess, one beyond mortal comprehension. She is often refereed to as the tenth Muse; Judith Hallett explains the significance of this credit: "By calling her a Muse they ranked her an inspired and immortal figure to whom poetic self-expression and success came naturally" (Hallett 447-8). Much more so than her male contemporaries, Sappho was honored and respected as a poetic genius.
All critical readings inevitably come to the issue of Sappho's sexuality: was she or was she not a lesbian? The question, of course, is not that simple. Before one establishes a fixed identity for the poet, it is important to look at why her sexuality is being questioned. Williamson poses her own question: "Why read the works of a female poet primarily as the key to her emotional and sexual life, when those of her male contemporaries are examined for more impersonal, literary qualities" (Williamson 90). While homosexuality may have been present themes in the poetry of Alcaeus and others, only Sappho's poetry is seen always in this light. Because she is a woman, it is assumed that her poetry consists of her own true experiences. What other motive could she have for transcribing these feelings? Certainly not the fame, fortune or creative genius that drove the male poets to write. Typically, emotional expressiveness is characteristic of women, so composing songs from her feelings would just be a natural progression for Sappho. Conversely, a man who could relate to such issues had to work especially hard to understand them, and it was a mark of his true talent if he were successful.
As a result, some critics attempt to look at Sappho in a new light, to read her poetry separate from her sexual orientation. Hallett takes this notion a step further by claiming that Sappho was not a lesbian at all. She says, "No evidence indicates that Sappho was any more involved with the women whose charms she praises in her lyrics than was Alcman with Astymeloisa or Hagesichora. No evidence, that is, despite later attempts to make sense out of her sensually expressive verses, out of their social and literary context" (Hallett 464). Yet with this claim Hallett falls guilty to what she and others try to avoid: she reads the poetry as indicative of Sappho herself. Eva Stehle Stigers reacts to Hallett: "She seems to assume that indications of sexual activity (or lack of them) will be biographical, even if nothing else is, an assumption which leads Hallett to write as though all the fragments were equally good indicators of Sappho's sexuality" (Stigers 466). Stigers also points out that while there may be no tangible documentation of lesbianism in Sappho, there is also nothing to indicate that she herself was sexually attracted to men. Rather, Sappho appears to be in touch with emotions regardless at whom they may be directed.
In coming to a conclusion as to whether or not Sappho was lesbian, we must examine the definition of the word "lesbian." Hallett tells us, "According to standard reference works, the English adjective 'Lesbian' denoted intensely erotic, hetero- more than homoerotic, individuals and feelings until only a few decades ago" (Hallett 452). This premise suggests that modern homophobia may have heightened sensitivity to same sex relationships. At certain points in history, it was not uncommon for women to have close, erotically charged relationships with each other. When dwelling on Sappho's sexuality, one of the main hindrances is that we are scrutinizing it from a modern perspective. As Williamson notes, "Direct discussions of Sappho's sexuality come from a period much later than her own, and are filtered through the attitudes and assumptions of a culture already very different from hers" (Williamson 91). Today we tend to see homosexuality as an either/or dichotomy (which may be why bisexuals are even less accepted than gays and lesbians) that gives a person a fixed identity. If one is heterosexual, sexuality becomes almost a non-issue, but for homosexuals their sexual orientation becomes the single-most identifying factor of their personalities. This distinction differs greatly with how homosexuality was viewed in ancient times. Williamson points out, "Sexual behavior, for a man at least, was regarded not as an expression of his innermost self, but as an index to his role and capacities in public life" (Williamson 93). On the other hand, as women were confined to the private sphere, their sexual practices were not related to their public identities but rather were seen as extensions of their emotional tendencies. Sexual contact was just another dimension of the bond between females.
Another way in which ancient notions of homosexuality differ from that of today is that relationships between a Sappho-type and a young girl were thought to be part of the transition between childhood to marriage, womanhood. Fragment 94 seems to play on this theme, as it depicts a young girl sad at the prospect of leaving the Sappho-narrator. The Sappho-narrator wishes her well and tells her to remember the happy times they shared. This fragment does contain explicit sexual imagery, as the Sappho-narrator speaks of the girl "quenching" her desire and that "no holy site [was] left uncovered." These words imply that the narrator and the girl did have sexual contact, but at least the girl is not limited to sexual experiences with women. She is leaving to get married and will undoubtedly engage in sexual relations with her husband. Williamson says of sex and marriage, "To approach marriage is by definition, in this perfect world, to become sexually attractive, and this desirable quality in maidens is indicated in a number of ways" (Williamson 119-20). The Sappho-narrator in fragment 94 realizes this and introduces the girl to her sexual self. Hallett suggests that without these interactions (whether explicitly sexual or merely emotional) heightened maidens' self-awareness: "These young women could not have received sexual attentions from their suitors or hoped to find emotional gratification within marriage itself. They could only have turned to other women to become more sensually aware, in order to perform adequately in the role to which their society assigned them and to find the sexual validation that could satisfy their needs" (Hallett 456). In ancient Greece, men were not expected to fulfill women's sexual and emotional needs, so they turned to each other for satisfaction. Thus female homosexuality can be seen as part of the "natural" (e.i. social) course of events.
As we have seen, it would be dubious to call Sappho a lesbian by today's standards. Yet many women in the modern lesbian community embrace Sappho as a figurehead of their lifestyle. Ostensibly, she is revered as the first "famous" lesbian. But there is much in Sappho's work that also corresponds to an ideology to which many lesbian women ascribe. Stigers notes, "The pattern of love . . . in her poetry, of mutuality rather than domination and subjection, of intimacy based on comprehending the other out of the self, is the ideal characteristic of lesbian love" (Stigers 54). A popular idea that is celebrated in the lesbian community is that of equality and respect between partners and for women in general, a concept that defies patriarchal culture. Sappho espouses this ideal in her poetry and praises women for enjoying each other. Says Winkler, "For [Sappho] the sexual is always something else as well. Her sacred landscape of the body is at the same time a statement about a more complete consciousness, whether of myth, poetry, ritual or personal relationships" (Winkler 81). By refusing to separate the sexual from the emotional, Sappho creates a world where women are not mere sex objects: they are people unto themselves who have definite senses of themselves and their friends and are better because of it.
So the question stands, how should we read Sappho's sexuality? Although Hallett claims that Sappho was not a lesbian, I do agree with her when she says, "[Sappho] should be regarded primarily as a poet with an important social purpose and public function: that of instilling sensual awareness and sexual self-esteem and of facilitating role adjustment in young females coming of age in a sexually segregated society" (Hallett 450). Because the men would not / could not prepare them for adult sexuality, the women taught themselves.
Sappho is a historical poet of mythical proportions and has been represented numerous times in a variety of interpretations in literature and art. She remains one of the few images of a literary woman in antiquity. She is a visionary of women who strive for a world in which they decide on what terms they will be eroticized. If women of today had an environment similar to the one Sappho created for her circle, maybe society would be more accepting of women's sexuality and individual identities.
Hallet, Judith P. "Sappho and Her Social Context: Sense and Sensuality." Signs 4 (1979) 447 - 64
Snyder, Jane McIntosh. "Public Occassion and Private Passion in the Lyrics of Sappho of Lesbos." Women's History and Ancient History. Sarah B. Pomeroy (ed.). Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1991 1 - 19
Stigers, Eva Stehle. "Romantic Sensuality, Poetic Sense: A Response to Hallet on Sappho." Signs 4 (1979) 465 - 71
Williamson, Margaret. Sappho's Immortal Daughters. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1995
Winkler, Jack. "Gardens of Nymphs: Public and Private in Sappho's Lyrics." Reflections of Women in Antiquity. 63 - 89.
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