ARA´TRUM
ARA´TRUM (
ἄροτρον), a
plough. The antiquity of its use in Greece may be inferred from the fact
that its invention is a subject of legend, being variously attributed to
Zeus (
Diod. 3.63), Dionysus (Arrian,
Ind. 7), Triptolemus (
Plin. Nat. 7.199), or the Athenian hero Buzyges (
Hesych. sub voce Plin.
l.c.). The plough appears again in Athenian legend in the story of the
ἥρως Ἐχετλαῖος or
Ἔχετλος, who fought against the Persians at
Marathon.
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Ancient Greek Plough. (Gerhard, Trinkschalen und
Gefässe, pl. 1.)
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The simplest and earliest form of the plough was that called
αὐτόγυον, so called because the
γύης or plough-tail and the other parts were of
one piece. It was made by taking a young tree with two branches proceeding
from its trunk in opposite directions, so that, while the trunk served for
the pole, one of the branches stood upwards and became the tail, and the
other penetrated the ground, and, being covered sometimes with bronze or
iron, fulfilled the purpose of a share. This form is exhibited in fig. 1 of
the annexed woodcut, taken from a medal.
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Primitive forms of the Plough and accompanying instruments.
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But even in Homer (
Hom. Il. 10.353) we hear
of the
πηκτὸν ἄροτρον, composed of
separate pieces of wood; and Hesiod (
O. et D. 427-36), who
advises the farmer to have a plough of each sort, describes the
πηκτὸν ἄροτρον as consisting of the
γύης (
buris, bura,
plough-tail), to be made of a bent piece of ilex; the
῎ελυμα (
dentale, share-beam), to be
made of oak; and the
ἱστοβοεύς (
temo, pole), to be made of bay or elm, the parts
being joined by nails. Fig. 2 of the above woodcut shows a plough which
differs somewhat from Hesiod's in having no distinct
γύης, but consisting of
ἱστοβοεύς,
ἔλυμα and
ἐχέτλη (
stiva, handle). It is the plough still used in
Mysia, according to Sir C. Fellows, who observes (
Excurs. in Asia
Minor, 1838, p. 71) that each portion of this instrument is
still called by its ancient Greek name, and adds that it seems suited only
to the light soil where he observed it, that it is held by one hand only,
that the form of the share (
ὕννις: see
fig. 3) varies, and that the plough is frequently used without any share.
“It is drawn by two oxen, yoked from the pole, and guided by a
long reed or thin stick (
κάτρινος),
which has a spud or scraper at the end for cleaning the share.”
For the yoke see fig. 4; for the
κάτρινος,
fig. 5.
The plough was no doubt usually drawn by oxen, but mules were esteemed for
this work (
Hom. Il. 10.351;
Od. 8.124).
The later and more developed
πηκτὸν
ἄροτρον may be regarded as consisting of a share (
῞υννις, ὕνις, ὕννη, ὕννης) fitted into a
share-beam (
ἔλυμα), from which rose the
handle (
ἐχέτλη), and, curving in the
opposite direction, the
ῥυμός, the lower
and curved part of which was the
γύης, the
upper the
ἱστοβοεύς or pole, across which
was fastened the
ζυγόν or yoke. The
accompanying wooduct, given by Ginzrot from a
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Ancient Greek Plough. (Ginzrot, Wagen und
Fahrwerke, p. 34.)
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bas-relief on the base of a statute of Demeter in Magnesia, shows
the
γύης strengthened by a piece of wood
rising from the
ἔλυμα, and also two
earth-boards (
πτερά,
aures) behind the share. The part of the handle
which the ploughman grasped was called
χειρολαβής; the part where the handle entered the
ἔλυμα, ἀλύη; the tip of the share,
νύμφη. (
Apollon.
3.232,
Schol.; Etym. Mag. p. 173; Pollux, 1.252;
Hesych.) The arrangements of the yoke are treated of under
JUGUM In ancient works of art the
parts of the plough are often represented as not nailed together, but lashed
with thongs.
The Italian plough, the invention of which the Romans referred to Greek
(
Verg. G. 1.19) or even Egyptian (
Tib. 1.7,
29) legends,
had the same simple origin as the Greek (as may be inferred from Etruscan
art), and a similar development. Its share was originally of bronze (Macr.
Sat. 5.19, 13). Virgil, in a passage
(
Georg. 1.169-75) probably suggested by Hesiod,
recommends that the plough-tail (
buris, bura)
should be made of elm, bent to the proper shape while growing, the yoke and
handle (
stiva) of smoke-dried linden or beech.
The pole (
temo)
[p. 1.160]is to
be eight feet long, and the plough is furnished with earth-boards or
mould--boards (
aures), rising on each side and
bending outwardly in such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which
had been previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the
share-beam, which was made double for the purpose of receiving them:
“Binae aures, duplici aptantur
dentalia dorso.” Keightley, however, holds that this
is merely a poetical use of the plural, and that the
dentale was single. According to Palladius (1.43), it was
desirable to have ploughs both with earth-boards (
aurita) and without them (
simplicia). The
handle (
stiva), according to Virgil, is used to
turn the plough at the end of the furrow: “Stivaque, quae currus a
tergo torqueat imos.” Servius, however, in his note on this line,
explains
stiva to mean “the handle by
which the plough is directed.” It is probable that, as the
dentalia,--i.e. the two share-beams, which
Virgil supposes were in the form of the Greek letter
Δ which he describes by
duplici
dorso,--the
buris was fastened to the
left share-beam, and the
stiva to the right; so
that, instead of the simple plough of the Greeks, that described by Virgil,
and used no doubt in his country (see the following woodcut), was more like
the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly held behind with both hands.
Sometimes, however, the
stiva (
ἐχέτλη, Hes.
Op. et Dies, 467)
was used alone and instead of the tail, as in the Mysian plough above
represented. To a plough so constructed the language of Columella was
especially applicable, “Arator stivae paene rectus innititur”
(1.9); and the expressions of Ovid, “Stivaeque innixus arator”
(
Met. 8.218), and “Inde premens stivam designat
moenia sulco” (
Fast. 4.825). In
place of “stiva,” Ovid also uses the less appropriate term
“capulus” (
Ep. de Ponto, 1.8, 61):
“Ipse manu capulum prensi moderatus aratri.” When the
plough was held either by the
stiva alone, or
by the
buris alone, a piece of wood (
manicula) was fixed across the summit, and on this
the labourer pressed with both hands. Besides guiding the plough in a
straight line, his duty was to force the share to a sufficient depth into
the soil. Virgil alludes to this in the phrase “Depresso
aratro” (
Georg. 1.45). The cross-bar, which is seen in
Sir C. Fellows's drawing, and which passes from the pole to the share for
the purpose of giving additional strength, was called
σπάθη, in Latin
fulcrum. The
coulter (
culter,
Plin. Nat. 18.171 if.) was used by the
Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to depend
vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which came in its
way, and thus preparing for the more complete loosening and overturning of
the soil by the share. The share (
comer, vomis) was
sometimes lashed under the
dentale, sometimes
imbedded in it (
indutilis: Cato,
Cat. Agr. 135, considers this arrangement
preferable). Pliny (
l.c.) describes the ordinary
form of
vomer as pointed like a crowbar; another,
for use in light lands, did not extend over the whole of the
dentale, but formed a slender point to its end;
another shape, broader, sharper and sword-like, pierced the ground with its
point, and with its edge did the work of a
culter.
Pliny also describes (
l.c.) a Rhaetian plough called
plaustraratrum or
plaumoratum (Sillig), furnished with two small wheels (
rotae, rotulae), invented not long before his time;
and Servius (
l.c.) mentions the use of them in the
country of Virgil. The annexed woodcut shows the
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Ancient Roman Plough.
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form of a wheel-plough, as represented on a piece of engraved
jasper, of Roman workman-ship. It also shows distinctly the
temo or pole, the coulter or
culter, the
dentate or share-beam,
the
buris or plough-tail, and the handle or
stiva (Caylus,
Rec. d'Ant.
v. pl. 83, No. 6). It corresponds, in all essential particulars, with the
plough now used about Mantua and Venice, of which an engraving is given
below.
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Modern Italian Plough.
- 1. Buris.
- 2. Temo.
- 3. Dentale.
- 4. Culter.
- 5. Vomer.
- 6. Aures.
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In Varro (
L. L. 5.135) and Columella (
R. R.
2.4), the word
dens includes
vomer and the later
dentale, which were
originally not distinct parts of the plough.
Urvum is used by Servius (
ad Verg. l.c.) in the
sense generally given to
buris, which term he
applies to the upper part of the pole, while Festus explains
urvum as
forma simillima uncini,
curvatione buris et dentis, cui praefigitur vomer.
The operations of ploughing are described under
AGRICULTURA p. 60b.
[
J.Y] [
J.H.F]