Basil L. Gildersleeve, Syntax of Classical Greek, Tenses

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Tenses

Tense in general

[*] 184. The tenses express the relations of time, embracing:

1. The stage of the action, duration in time, kind of time.

2. The period of the action, position in time, sphere of time.

The first tells, for example, whether the action is going on or finished.

The second tells whether the action is past, present, or future.

[*] 185. Peculiar to the Greek language, as compared with Latin and English, is the specific form for the relation of attainment called the aorist, the tense of concentrated action, the absolute tense. The kind of time and the sphere of time are both expressed by the tenses of the indicative mood or declarative form of the verb. But present and future have no special aoristic form in the active and middle, though in the passive it is possible to make a distinction.

[*] 186. The absence of special forms for designating the kind of time in the future helps to account for many modal combinations. The subjunctive and optative often serve to express exact temporal relations in the future.

[*] 187. The tenses are further divided into principal and historical, or primary and secondary, according as they refer to the present and the future on the one hand (time not past) and to the past on the other.

[*] 188. Table of Temporal Relations

Indicative Mood
ACTIVE
	Continuance.	Completion.	Attainment.
Principal (Primary) Tenses
PRESENT:	“γράφω”, I am writing	“γέγραφα”, I have written	“γράφω”, I write
FUTURE:	“γράψω”, I shall be writing	“γεγραφὼς ἔσομαι”, I shall have written	“γράψω” [“γράψας ἔσομαι” (293)], I shall write
Historical (Secondary) Tenses
PAST:	“ἔγραφον”, I was writing	“ἐγεγράφη”, I had written	“ἔγραψα”, I wrote
PASSIVE
Principal (Primary) Tenses
PRESENT:	“γράφεται ἡ ἐπιστολή”, The letter is written, being written, writing.	“γέγραπται”, has been written	“γράφεται”, is written
FUTURE:	（“γράψεται”), will be written (writing).	“γεγράψεται”, will have been, will be written	（“γραφήσεται”), [“γραφεῖσα ἔσται” (293)], will be written
Historical (Secondary) Tenses
PAST:	“ἐγράφετο”, was (being) written	“ἐγέγραπτο”, had been written, was written	“ἐγράφη”, was written

Present Tense

[*] 189. Specific present. — universal present.

The present is used, as in English, of that which is going on now (specific present), and of statements that apply to all time (universal present).

Specific Present:

“τὸν ἄνδρα ὁρῶ,” XEN. An. 1.8.26 ; I see my man.

[*] 190. Universal Present:

“πάντα . . . ῥεῖ”, PLATO, Cratyl. 440C; Everything is in motion.

PLATO, Crat. 402A (97). 440 C (see above).

HDT.7.9, “γ”): “ἀπὸ πείρης πάντα ἀνθρώποισι φιλέει γίνεσθαι” (97).

COM. Philem.4.40: “ἐχθροὺς ποιοῦσι τοὺς φίλους αἱ συγκρίσεις”, Comparisons make enemies of friends.

EPICHARM. fr. 117 Ahr.: “νόος ὁρῇ καὶ νόος ἀκούει”, (It is) mind (that) sees and mind (that) hears.

[*] 191. Present participle combined with copula.

The Greek has no special form for the progressive present of English, nor for the progressive tenses generally. In the periphrasis with the present participle, the participle is generally equivalent to a characteristic adjective or substantive, with which it is often coupled. Notice must also be taken of the position of the copula, which readily resumes its emphasis.¹

“δεόμενά ἐστι” = “οἷά ἐστι δεῖσθαι”, comp. XEN. Oec. 7.21. “προσῆκόν ἐστι”, It is becoming; “προσήκει”, It becomes. “αἰσθανόμενος”, PLATO, Theaet. 160A = “αἰσθητής”, Ibid. 160 D.

LYCURG.36: “ὁμολογούμενόν ἐστιν”.

DEM.19.312: “τίς γάρ ἐστιν . . . οὕτω σκαιὸς καὶ . . . σφόδρα μισῶν τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἡμετέραν”; 20.152: “ἔστι δὲ καὶ μάλ᾽ ἔχων νόμος ὑμῖν καλῶς”. Ibid.. 153: “παλαιός ἐσθ᾽ ὁ νόμος καὶ καλῶς ἔχων”. 157: “αἰσχρὸς . . . καὶ κακῶς ἔχων ὁ νόμος”.

ISAE. 7.14: “προσῆκον ἦν”. Ibid. 19: “κἁὶ τοῦτο οὐκ ἀγνοούμενόν ἐστιν οὐδὲ παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς τούτοις”.

LYS. 13.91: “ἦν ὑπάρχοντα” .

PLATO, Euthyph. 10B: “οὐκ ἄρα διότι ὁρώμενόν ἐστι, διὰ τοῦτο ὁρᾶται, ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον διότι ὁρᾶται, διὰ τοῦτο ὁρώμενον”. (Here the difference between predication and action is insisted on.) Legg. 811 B: “κίνδυνόν φημι εἶναι φέρουσαν τοῖς παισὶ τὴν πολυμαθίαν”, I maintain that multifarious learning is a dangerous thing for children—is endangering to children. Phileb. 11 A: “ὅρα δὴ . . . πρὸς τίνα” (sc. “λόγον”) “τὸν παρ᾽ ἡμῖν ἀμφισβητεῖν” (sc. “μέλλεις”), “ἐὰν μή σοι κατὰ νοῦν ᾖ λεγόμενος”. Theaet. 160 A-D (see above).

XEN. Oec. 7.21: “ἃ τῶν στεγνῶν ἔργα δεὀμενά ἐστι. στεγνῶν δὲ δεῖται . . . ἡ τῶν νεογνῶν τέκνων παιδοτροφία. δεόμενα” = quae egentia sunt = quae egeant. “δεῖται” = eget. [R. A.] 2.3: “ὁπόσαι δ᾽ ἐν τῇ ἠπείρῳ εἰσὶ πόλεις ὑπὸ τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἀρχόμεναι” (= “ὑπήκοοι”), “αἱ μὲν μεγάλαι διὰ δέος ἄρχονται, αἱ δὲ μικραὶ πάνυ διὰ χρείαν”.

THUC.4.109.2: “ἔστι δὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ βασιλέως διορύγματος ἔσω προὔχουσα”.

HDT.1.57: “ἦσαν οἱ Πελασγοὶ βάρβαρον γλῶσσαν ἱέντες” (= “βαρβαρόφωνοι”). 2.61: “ὅσοι δὲ Καρῶν εἰσι ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ οἰκέοντες” (“οἰκέουσι”, live; “οἰκέοντές εἰσι”, are resident). 3.133: “ὅσα ἐς αἰσχύνην ἐστὶ φέροντα”. 4.11: “ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἄλλος λόγος ἔχων ὧδε” (= “τοιόσδε”).

AR. Thesm. 77: “εἴτ᾽ ἔστ᾽ ἔτι ζῶν εἴτ᾽ ἀπόλωλ̓ Εὐριπίδης”. Ran. 35-37: “κατάβα, πανοῦργε. καὶ γὰρ ἐγγὺς τῆς θύρας” | “ἤδη βαδίζων εἰμὶ τῆσδ᾽, οἷ πρῶτά με” | “ἔδει τραπέσθαι”. Well explained by Kock: Auf meinem Marsche bin ich in die Nähe gekommen. Eccl. 1093-4: “οἴμοι κακοδαίμων, ἐγγὺς ἤδη τῆς θύρας” | “ἑλκόμενός εἰμ”（“ι”).

SOPH. O. R. 1045: “ζῶν” as adj.; also in Phil. 412.

ARCHIL.1: “εἰμὶ δ᾽ ἐγὼ θεράπων μὲν Ἐνυαλίοιο ἄνακτος”, | “καὶ Μουσέων ἐρατὸν δῶρον ἐπιστάμενος”.

[*] 192. Conative present. present of endeavor.

As continuance involves the notion of incompleteness, the present is used of attempted and intended action (present of endeavor, conative present). But on account of the double use of the present as a tense of continuance and as a tense of attainment, this signification is less prominent and less important than in the imperfect. Notice that this conative sense runs through the moods.

Indicative:

“ὠνοῦμαι”, I am trying to buy, I am bidding. “δίδωμι”, I am willing to give, I offer. “παρακρούεται . . . ὑμα_ς”, DEM.29.1; He tries to swindle you. “οἱ Ἐγεσταῖοι . . . ἡμᾶς ἐκφοβοῦσι”, THUC.6.11.2; The Segestans are trying to frighten us. “τὸν υἱὸν κτείνει”, HDT.1.109; He wishes to kill her son.

DEM.29.1(see above).

PLATO, Phaedr. 273D: “εἰ . . . ἄλλο τι περὶ τέχνης λόγων λέγεις” (have to say, want to say), “ἀκούοιμεν ἄν”. PLAT. Soph. 242C: “λέγε σαφέστερον ὃ λέγεις”.

XEN. An. 7.7.7: “ἐξελαύνετε ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆσδε τῆς χώρας”.

THUC.6.11.2(see above).

HDT.1.109(see above).

PIND. O. 2.98: “τίνα βάλλομεν”; Whom are we trying to hit?

[*] 193. Other Moods and Verbals:

ISAE. 2.28: “ἀπηγόρευε τοῖς ὠνουμένοις μὴ ὠνεῖσθαι”.

ISOC.4.17: “τὸν μὴ μόνον ἐπίδειξιν ποιούμενον” (= “ποιήσασθαι βουλόμενον”) “ἀλλὰ καὶ διαπράξασθαί τι βουλόμενον”.

PLATO, Protag. 340E: “ἰώμενος μεῖζον τὸ νόσημα ποιῶ” , In trying to heal the disease I make it worse.

XEN. Hiero, 11.13: “πλούτιζε . . . τοὺς φίλους”.

THUC.3.18.1: “ἐπὶ Μήθυμναν ὡς προδιδομένην ἐστράτευσαν”. 3.22.4: “κατέβαλε γάρ τις . . . ἀντιλαμβανόμενος . . . κεραμίδα” . 3.56.2: “πόλιν . . . τὴν ἡμετέραν καταλαμβάνοντας” .

EUR. Phoen. 81: “ἔριν λύους”（“α”).

PIND. O. 13.58-60: “τοὶ μὲν . . . Ἑλέναν κομίζοντες, οἱ δ᾽ ἀπὸ πάμπαν εἴργοντες”. P. 4.106: “ἀγκομίζων”, with note.

HOM. Il. 10.457: “φθεγγομένου δ᾽ ἄρα τοῦ γε κάρη κονίῃσιν ἐμίχθη”.

[*] 194. Present anticipating the future. — praesens propheticum.

The present tense is used more rarely than in English in anticipation of the future, chiefly in verbs in which the will is equivalent to the deed: “εἶμι”, I go, “οὐκ ἐῶ”, I suffer not, “γίγνομαι”, I am becoming. The present as a vision of the future is called praesens propheticum.

“ἐν δὲ μιᾷ μάχῃ τήνδε τε προσκτᾶσθε” (win = shall win) “καὶ ἐκείνην μᾶλλον ἐλευθεροῦτε” (free = shall free), THUC.4.95.2. “τούτων τῶν ψηφισμάτων . . . ἢ μενόντων . . . ἢ ἁλόντων . . . τί ἡ πόλις ἢ κερδαίνει ἢ βλάπτεται”; DEM. [58]DEM., 37.

LYCURG.126: “εἰ γὰρ προήσεσθε τοῦτον τὸν καιρὸν . . ., οὐκ ἔστιν ὑμῖν μετὰ ταῦτα δίκην παρ᾽ αὐτῶν ἀδικούντων λαβεῖν: κρείττους γὰρ ἤδη γίγνονται τῆς παρὰ τῶν ἀδικουμένων τιμωρίας”.

DEM. [58]DEM., 37(see above).

XEN. Cyr. 4.6.7: “εἰ οὖν σύ με δέχῃ κτἑ”.

THUC.1.121.4: “μιᾷ τε νίκῃ ναυμαχίας κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς ἁλίσκονται”. 4.95.2 (see above). 6.91.3: “εἰ αὕτη ἡ πόλις ληφθήσεται, ἔχεται καὶ ἡ πᾶσα Σικελία” .

HDT.1.207: “ἑσσωθεὶς μὲν προσαπολλύεις πᾶσαν τὴν ἀρχήν: . . . νικῶν δὲ οὐ νικᾷς τοσοῦτον ὅσον εἰ κτἑ”. 3.155: “ἤδη . . . αἱρέομεν Βαβυλῶνα”. 6.82: “οὐκ αἱρέει τὸ Ἄργος”. 6.109: “ἢν γὰρ σὺ γνώμῃ τῇ ἐμῇ προσθῇ, ἔστι τοι πατρίς τε ἐλευθέρη καὶ πόλις πρώτη τῶν ἐν τῇ Ἑλλάδι”. 8.102: “Μαρδονίου δέ, ἤν τι πάθῃ, λόγος οὐδεὶς γίνεται: οὐδέ τι νικῶντες οἱ Ἕλληνες νικῶσι, δοῦλον σὸν ἀπολέσαντες”.

AR. Eq. 127: “ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἔνεστιν, αὐτὸς ὡς ἀπόλλυται”.

EUR. Phoen. 884-5: “σύ τ᾽ ὦ τάλαινα συγκατασκάπτῃ πόλι”, | “εἰ μὴ λόγοις τις τοῖς ἐμοῖσι πείσεται”.

SOPH. Ph. 113: “αἱρεῖ τὰ τόξα ταῦτα τὴν Τροίαν μόνα” (97).

AESCHYL. Cho. 550: “κτείνω νιν, ὡς τοὔνειρον ἐννέπει τόδε”. P. V. 171: “ἀποσυλᾶται” , Ibid. 767: “ἦ πρὸς δάμαρτος ἐξανίσταται θρόνων;”

PIND. O. 8.42: “Πέργαμος . . . ἁλίσκεται”. P. 4.48-9: “τότε . . . ἐξανίστανται”.

[*] 195. ei)=mi.

In standard prose “εἶμι” in the indicative is future everywhere. In the optative, infinitive, and participle it is now future, now present. The subjunctive is future by virtue of its meaning.

Indicative as a future:

“εἶμι . . . ἐπὶ τὸν τῶνδε ἔπαινον”, THUC.2.36.4; I will proceed to the praise of these men. “ἀλλ᾽ εἶμι”, AR. Pax, 232; Well, I am going.

DEM.16.8: “ταύτην ἂν ἕλωσιν, ἴασ᾽ ἐπὶ Μεσσήνην”. 20.99: “εἶμι”. 23.106: “οὐκ ἐπ᾽ ἐκείνους ἴμεν καὶ δἰ ἐκείνων ἀσθενῆ ποιεῖν αὐτὸν ζητήσομεν”;

PLATO, Protag. 335C: “νῦν δὲ . . . ἐλθεῖν γάρ ποί με δεῖ . . . εἶμι”.

THUC.2.36.4(see above). 4.85.6: “ἀλλὰ καὶ οἷς ἂν ἐπίω, ἧσσόν τις ἐμοὶ πρόσεισι” .

AR. Pax, 232 (see above). Eccl. 933: “τάχα γὰρ εἶσιν ὡς ἐμέ”.

SOPH. Ph. 461: “νῦν δ᾽ εἶμι πρὸς ναῦν”.

HOM. Od. 17.277: “εἰ δ᾽ ἐθέλεις, ἐπίμεινον, ἐγὼ δ᾽ εἶμι προπάροιθεν”.

Il. 3.410: “κεῖσε δ᾽ ἐγὼν οὐκ εἶμι”.

Optative as a future:

ANTIPHON, 1.11: “ἐπειδὴ τάχιστα αὐτοῖς ἀπηγγέλθη ὅτι ἐπεξίοιμι τοῦ πατρὸς τὸν φονέα”.

XEN. Hell. 5.1.34: “ἀλλ᾽ ὁ Ἀγησίλαος καὶ τούτοις προεῖπε, τοῖς μέν, εἰ μὴ ἐκπέμψοιεν τοὺς Ἀργείους, τοῖς δέ, εἰ μὴ ἀπίοιεν ἐκ τῆς Κορίνθου, ὅτι πόλεμον ἐξοίσει ἐπ̓ αὐτούς”.

Infinitive as a future:

LYS. 25.22: “τότ᾽ ἤδη καὶ κατιέναι προσεδοκα_τε καὶ παρὰ τῶν ἐχθρῶν λήψεσθαι δίκην” .

PLATO, Phaed. 103D: “καὶ τὸ πῦρ γε αὖ προσιόντος τοῦ ψυχροῦ αὐτῷ ἢ ὑπεξιέναι” (sc. “δοκεῖ σοι”) “ἢ ἀπολεῖσθαι”.

XEN. An. 1.3.1: “οἱ γὰρ στρατιῶται οὐκ ἔφασαν ἰέναι τοῦ πρόσω”.

THUC.4.98.4: “ἀπιέναι”. 5.7.3: “ἐπεξιέναι” . 5: “ἀπιέναι”. 6.49.4: “προσιέναι” .

Participle as a future:

PLATO, Protag. 335C: “ἀνιστάμην ὡς ἀπιών”.

THUC.3.27.2: “ὡς ἐπεξιὼν τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις”.

AR. Pax, 1182: “οὐ γὰρ ᾔδειν ἐξιών”.

[*] 196. Optative, Infinitive, and Participle of ei)=mi not future:

ANDOC.1.39: “ἰδὼν δὲ ταῦτ᾽ ἔφη ἐπὶ Λαύριον ἰέναι” (91).

PLATO, Cratyl. 401D: “σχεδόν τι αὖ οὗτοι καθ᾽ Ἡράκλειτον ἂν ἡγοῖντο τὰ ὄντα ἰέναι τε πάντα καὶ μένειν οὐδέν”.

XEN. An. 1.3.1: “ὑπώπτευον γὰρ ἤδη ἐπὶ βασιλέα ἰέναι”.

THUC.5.65.2: “ὁρῶν πρὸς χωρίον καρτερὸν ἰόντας σφᾶς”.

[*] 197. Indicative as a present:

The use of “εἶμι” itself as present is poetical and late.

PLATO, Conv. 174B: “ἀγαθῶν ἐπὶ δαῖτας ἴασιν αὐτόματοι ἀγαθοί” (PROV.).

HOM. Od. 4.401: “τῆμος ἄρ᾽ ἐξ ἁλὸς εἶσι γέρων ἅλιος νημερτής”.

Il. 2.87: “ἠύτε ἔθνεα εἶσι μελισσάων ἁδινάων”.

[*] 198. Present in passionate questions.

In passionate questions, the present is used as a form of exhortation.

“τί οὖν οὐ διώκομεν ὡς τάχιστα”; XEN. Cyr. 4.1.11; Why, then, do we not pursue with all speed?

XEN. Cyr. 4.1.11 (see above). 12: “τί οὖν . . . οὐκ ἐλθὼν Κυαξάρῃ λέγεις ταῦτα”;

EUR. Hipp. 1060: “ὦ θεοί, τί δῆτα τοὐμὸν οὐ λύω στόμα”;

[*] 199. Historical present.

The present tense is used far more frequently than in English as a lively representation of the past (historical present). Especially strange to us is the free use of the historical present in relative and dependent clauses generally, as these demand more reflection.²

“τί ποιοῦσιν; . . . διεκαρτέρουν”, LYCURG.85; What did they do?—They held out to the end. “πῶς οὖν ταῦτ᾽ ἐποίησεν; μισθοῦται τουτονί”, DEM.18.149; How, then, did he do this? He hires this fellow.

LYCURG.85(see above).

DEM.18.149(see above). [53]DEM., 17: “τηρήσας με . . . παίει τε πὺξ καὶ ἁρπάζει μέσον καὶ ὠθεῖ με εἰς τὰς λιθοτομίας, εἰ μή τινες προσιόντες, βοῶντός μου ἀκούσαντες, παρεγένοντο καὶ ἐβοήθησαν”. (“ὠθεῖ” is an hist. pres. equivalent to an impf. de conatu.）

PLATO , Phaedo 84 D: “καὶ ὃς ἀκούσας ἐγέλασέ τε ἠρέμα καί φησι”.

XEN. An. 1.10.1: “ἐνταῦθα δὴ Κύρου ἀποτέμνεται ἡ κεφαλὴ καὶ ἡ χεὶρ ἡ δεξιά. βασιλεὺς δὲ καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ διώκων εἰσπίπτει εἰς τὸ Κύρειον στρατόπεδον: καὶ οἱ μὲν μετὰ Ἀριαίου οὐκέτι ἵστανται, ἀλλὰ φεύγουσι”.

THUC.1.59.1: “αἱ δὲ τριάκοντα νῆες τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἀφικνοῦνται ἐς τὰ ἐπὶ Θρᾴκης καὶ καταλαμβάνουσι τὴν Ποτείδαιαν καὶ τἆλλα ἀφεστηκότα”. 1.91.2: “κελεύει” . 1.91.3: “ἀποστέλλουσιν . . . πέμπει” . 6.57.3: “ἔτυπτον καὶ ἀποκτείνουσιν αὐτόν” . (ter). 8.10.3: “καταδιώκουσιν . . . ἀπολλύασι . . . ὁρμίζουσι” . 8.25.3 (twice). 8.25.4. 8.55.3 (ter).

HDT.1.43: “ἀκοντίζων τὸν ὗν, τοῦ μὲν ἁμαρτάνει, τυγχάνει δὲ τοῦ Κροίσου παιδός”. 45: “κατοικτίρει . . . λέγει”. 107: “διδοῖ” (twice). 3.4: “ὃς αἱρέει μιν ἐν Λυκίῃ, ἑλὼν δὲ οὐκ ἀνήγαγε ἐς Αἴγυπτον”. 3.53: “ἵνα μή σφι Περίανδρος ἐς τὴν χώρην ἀπίκηται, κτείνουσι τὸν νεηνίσκον”. 5.11: “αἰτέει . . . αἱρέεται . . . αἰτέει”.

AR. Pl. 676: “ἔπειτ᾽ ἀναβλέψας ὁρῶ τὸν ἱερέα”.

EUR. H. F. 252: “ὦ γῆς λοχεύμαθ᾽ οὓς Ἄρης σπείρει ποτέ”. I. T. 16: “εἰς ἔμπυρ᾽ ἦλθε” (sc. “Ἀγαμέμνων”), “καὶ λέγει Κάλχας τάδε”.

SOPH. El. 424-5: “τοιαῦτά του παρόντος, ἡνίχ᾽ Ἡλίῳ” | “δείκνυσι τοὔναρ, ἔκλυον ἐξηγουμένου”. Ibid. 679: “τἀληθὲς εἰπέ, τῷ τρόπῳ διόλλυται”; O. T. 779-80: “ἀνὴρ γὰρ ἐν δείπνοις μ᾽ ὑπερπλησθεὶς μέθῃ” | “καλεῖ παρ᾽ οἴνῳ, πλαστὸς ὡς εἴην πατρί”. Ibid. 787: “πορεύομαι”. Ibid. 798: “ἱκνοῦμαι”. Ibid. 807: “παίω . . . ὡς ὁρᾷ”. Ibid. 812: “ἐκκυλίνδεται”. Ibid. 813: “κτείνω”.

“ ὅπως τάχιστα τὸν πατρῷον ἐς θρόνον
καθέζετ᾽, εὐθὺς δαίμοσιν νέμει γέρα
... καὶ διεστοιχίζετο
ἀρχήν.
”
AESCHYL. P. V. 228-31:

[*] 200. This use of the present belongs to the original stock of our family of languages. It antedates the differentiation into imperf. and aorist. Being a familiar form, it is set down as a mark of simplicity (“ἀφέλεια”) of style. By reason, therefore, both of its liveliness and its familiar tone it is foreign to the leisurely and dignified unfolding of the epos, and is not found in Homer, whereas it is very common in the rhetorical Vergil, as it is very common in the Attic orators. Nor is it used to any extent, if at all, in the statuesque Pindaric ode, whereas it is frequent in the Attic drama, which seems to have introduced it to higher literature.

[*] 201. Annalistic or note-book present.

Akin to the Historical Present, and not always to be distinguished from it, is the Annalistic Present, Note - book Present, or Present of Registration, which transfers a record or register to the historical page. So especially in dates of births, deaths, and accessions.

“Δαρείου καὶ Παρυσάτιδος γίγνονται παῖδες δύο”, XEN. An. 1.1.1; To (of) Darius and Parysatis are born two sons. “Κυαξάρης μὲν . . . τελευτᾷ, ἐκδέκεται δὲ Ἀστυάγης . . . τὴν βασιληίην”, HDT.1.106; Cyaxares dies and Astyages succeeds to the throne. “τούτου δὲ Κελεὸς γίγνεται”, AR. Ach. 48.

[*] 202. Present of unity of time.

The present is used in Greek of actions that are continued from the past into the present, especially with designations of time. The English translation is often the progressive perfect.

“οἰκῶ ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἐκ μειρακίου”, DEM. [47]DEM., 53; I have been living there from a boy. “κεῖνον γάρ, οὐδέν᾽ ἄλλον, ἰχνεύω πάλαι,” SOPH. Ai. 20 ; For he it is, none other, I've been tracking long.

DEM.21.59: “πάντα τὸν μετὰ ταῦτα χρόνον διδάσκει τοὺς χορούς”. [33]DEM., 4: “οὔπω δ᾽ ἔτη ἐστὶν ἑπτά, ἀφ̓ οὗ τὸ μὲν πλεῖν καταλέλυκα, μέτρια δ᾽ ἔχων τούτοις πειρῶμαι ναυτικοῖς ἐργάζεσθαι”. [47]DEM., 53(see above).

LYS.17.9: “οὔτε νεωστὶ ταῦτα τὰ χρήματα ἀξιοῦμεν ἡμέτερα εἶναι” .

PLATO, Conv. 172C: “ἀφ᾽ οὗ δ᾽ ἐγὼ Σωκράτει συνδιατρίβω . . . οὐδέπω τρία ἔτη ἐστίν”. Phaedo 84 D: “πάλαι . . . προωθεῖ καὶ κελεύει”.

HDT.3.49: “νῦν δὲ αἰεὶ ἐπείτε ἔκτισαν τὴν νῆσον, εἰσὶ ἀλλήλοισι διάφοροι”. 7.102: “τῇ Ἑλλάδι πενίη . . . αἰεί κοτε σύντροφός ἐστι”. 8.62: “κομιεύμεθα ἐς Σῖριν τὴν ἐν Ἰταλίῃ, ἥ περ ἡμετέρη τέ ἐστι ἐκ παλαιοῦ ἔτι καὶ κτἑ”.

AR. Ach. 17: “ἐξ ὅτου ᾿γὼ ῥύπτομαι” (146). Vesp. 317: “τήκομαι μὲν πάλαι”. Ibid. 320: “βούλομαί γε πάλαι”.

EUR. H. F. 702-3: “χρόνος γὰρ ἤδη δαρὸς ἐξ ὅτου πέπλοις” | “κοσμεῖσθε σῶμα”.

HOM. Od. 13.377: “οἳ δή τοι τρίετες μέγαρον κάτα κοιρανέουσιν”.

Il. 1.553: “καὶ λίην σε πάρος γ᾽ οὔτ᾽ εἴρομαι οὔτε μεταλλῶ”.

So in the other moods of continuance:

LYS.17.8: “ἴσασιν ἡμᾶς ἤδη τρία ἔτη ἀμφισβητοῦντας” .

HDT.8.41: “αὕτη δ᾽ ἡ μελιτόεσσα ἐν τῷ πρόσθε αἰεὶ χρόνῳ ἀναισιμουμένη τότε ἦν ἄψαυστος”.

AR. Vesp. 1074: “ῥᾳδίως ἐγὼ διδάξω, κἂν ἄμουσος ᾖ τὸ πρίν”, Readily will I teach him e en if he have been untrained before.

[*] 203. Perfect of unity of time.

This does not exclude the use of the perfect.

“τὰ . . . Σφηττοῖ ἤδη τρία ἔτη μεμίσθωκα,” LYS. 17.5 ; I have let the Sphettian property now three years.

LYS.9.4: “ἀφικόμενος προπέρυσιν εἰς τὴν πόλιν, οὔπω δύο μῆνας ἐπιδεδημηκὼς κατελέγην στρατιώτης” .

[*] 204. Present for perfect.

The present tense of a number of verbs that involve unity of character or persistence of result, is often translated by the English perfect. “νικῶ”, I am victorious, I have conquered; “ἥκω”, I am here, I have arrived; “οἴχομαι”, I am off, I am gone; “ἀκούω”, I hear or have heard; “πυνθάνομαι”, I learn or have learned. “στέρομαι”, I am deprived, and so all verbs of privation.

“νῦν δ᾽ ἑτέρου πολέμου καιρὸς ἥκει τις”, DEM.3.6, “νικῶμεν . . . βασιλέα”, XEN. An. 2.1.4; We are victorious over (have conquered) the king. “ἐκεῖνο ἀκήκοας; . . . καὶ τοῦτό γ̓, ἔφη, ἀκούω”, Mem. 3.5.26. “στερόμεθα ἐπιστήμης”, PLATO, Theaet. 196E; We are deprived of, have to go without, science.

DEM.3.6(see above). 4.24: “πρότερόν ποτ᾽ ἀκούω ξενικὸν τρέφειν ἐν Κορίνθῳ τὴν πόλιν”, but 19.221: “καὶ γὰρ ταῦτ᾽ ἀκήκὀ αὐτὸν λέγειν”.

ANTIPHON. Cf. 3 “δ” 9: “εἰ δὲ αὐθέντης ἐκ τῶν λεγομένων ἐπιδείκνυται, οὐχ ἡμεῖς αὐτῷ οἱ λέγοντες αἴτιοί ἐσμεν, ἀλλ᾽ ἡ πρᾶξις τῶν ἔργων”.

PLATO, Gorg. 503C: “Θεμιστοκλέα οὐκ ἀκούεις ἄνδρα ἀγαθὸν γεγονότα”; Theaet. 142 B: “χαλεπῶς μὲν γὰρ ἔχει καὶ ὑπὸ τραυμάτων τινῶν, μᾶλλον μὴν αὐτὸν αἱρεῖ τὸ γεγονὸς νόσημα ἐν τω? στρατεύματι”. Ibid. 196 E (see above).

XEN. An. 2.1.4 (see above). Mem. 3.5.26 (see above).

THUC.1.70.7: “ἃ μὲν ἂν ἐπινοήσαντες μὴ ἐξέλθωσιν, οἰκεῖα στέρεσθαι ἡγοῦνται”, “In failing to attain an object, they consider that they have lost” (are suffering the loss of) “what was really their own.”—Morris.

HDT.7.53: “ὡς γὰρ ἐγὼ πυνθάνομαι, ἐπ᾽ ἄνδρας στρατευόμεθα ἀγαθούς”.

EUR. Hel. 134: “οἴχεται θανοῦσα δή”.

SOPH. El. 1326: “ὦ πλεῖστα μῶροι καὶ φρενῶν τητώμενοι”. Ph. 414: “ἀλλ᾽ ἦ χοὖτος οἴχεται θανών”;

PIND. P. 6.22-3: “ὀρφανιζομένῳ” | “Πηλεΐδᾳ”.

HOM. Od. 1.298: “ἢ οὐκ ἀίεις, οἷον κλέος ἔλλαβε δῖος Ὀρέστης”; 2.118: “οἰ̔̂ οὔ πώ τιν᾽ ἀκούομεν”. 3.86-8: “ἄλλους μὲν γὰρ πάντας, ὅσοι Τρωσὶν πολέμιζον”, | “πευθόμεθ̓, ἧχι ἕκαστος ἀπώλετο λυγρῷ ὀλέθρῳ:” | “κείνου δ᾽ αὖ καὶ ὄλεθρον ἀπευθέα θῆκε Κρονίων”.

Imperfect Tense³

[*] 205. The imperfect tense denotes continuance in the past. It is the tense of evolution, of vision.

“τὸ παιδίον ἐβόα,” LYS.1.11 ; The baby was squalling, began to squall, squalled.

[*] 206. Imperfect with adverb of rapidity.

The continuance is in the mind of the narrator; it has nothing to do with the absolute duration of the action. The aorist is the rule with the expression of definite numbers (see 208), and it is not at all inconsistent with the nature of the imperfect tense that it should be accompanied by an adverb expressing the notion of rapidity.

“εὐθὺς ἐχώρει ἐπὶ τὴν Ἀρκαδίαν”, XEN. Hell. 6.5.12; Forthwith he proceeded on his way to Arcadia.

LYS.1.17: “εὐθέως ἐταραττόμην” . 8.15: “εὐθὺς . . . ἐβάδιζε” . 9.4: “ὑπετοπούμην εὐθέως” . 13.35: “εὐθέως κρίσιν τοῖς ἀνδράσι τούτοις ἐποίουν ἐν τῇ βουλῇ” . 21.3: “εὐθὺς ἐγυμνασιάρχουν” .

XEN. An. 3.4.27: “οἱ δὲ πολέμιοι ταχὺ ἀπεπήδων”. Hell. 6.5.12 (see above).

THUC.3.49.2: “τριήρη εὐθὺς ἄλλην ἀπέστελλον”, They despatched (were for despatching) another trireme at once. 3.106.1: “ἐβοήθουν κατὰ τάχος” . 3.109.3: “διὰ τάχους ἔθαπτον” . 3.111.1: “θᾶσσον ἀπεχώρουν” . 5.21.1: “εὐθὺς . . . ἀφίεσαν” . 5.21.3: “κατὰ τάχος ἐπορεύετο” . 6.69.1: “ἐπῆγε τὸ στρατόπεδον εὐθύς . . . ἀναλαβόντες τὰ ὅπλα εὐθὺς ἀντεπῇσαν” . 7.29.1: “εὐθὺς ἀπέπεμπον” . 7.69.1: “ἀντεπλήρουν τὰς ναῦς εὐθύς” . 7.84.3: “εὐθὺς διεφθείροντο” . 8.12.3: “διὰ τάχους τὸν πλοῦν ἐποιοῦντο” .

HDT.1.79: “ἐποίεε κατὰ τάχος”.

AR. Nub. 1357: “ὁ δ᾽ εὐθέως . . . ἔφασκε” . Vesp. 355: “ἵεις σαυτὸν κατὰ τοῦ τείχους ταχέως”.

PIND. P. 9.38-9: “μῆτιν ἑὰν” | “εὐθὺς ἀμείβετο”.

HOM. Od. 9.179: “οἱ δ᾽ αἶψ̓ εἴσβαινον καὶ ἐπὶ κληῖσι καθῖζον”.

Il. 2.52: “τοὶ δ᾽ ἠγείροντο μάλ̓ ὦκα”.

[*] 207. Descriptive imperfect.

The imperfect is employed to represent manners, customs, situations, to describe and to particularize.

“ἧς” (sc. “τῆς βουλῆς”) “ἐπιστατούσης οὐ δικῶν οὐδ᾽ ἐγκλημάτων οὐδ᾽ εἰσφορῶν οὐδὲ πενίας οὐδὲ πολέμων ἡ πόλις ἔγεμεν, ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἡσυχίαν εἶχον καὶ πρὸς τοὺς ἄλλους ἅπαντας εἰρήνην ἦγον. παρεῖχον . . . διῆγον . . . ἐποίουν . . . ἐδοκίμαζον”, ISOC.7.51-3, a description of the good old times. “ἡ δὲ γυνὴ τοῦ βασιλέος αὐτὴ τὰ σιτία σφι ἔπεσσε”, HDT.8.137; The queen herself would cook them their food. “τῶν δὲ πολεμίων, ἐπεὶ φῶς ἐγένετο, οἱ μὲν ἐθαύμαζον τὰ δρώμενα, οἱ δ᾽ ἐγίγνωσκον ἤδη, οἱ δ᾽ ἤγγελλον, οἱ δ᾽ ἐβόων, οἱ δ᾽ ἔλυον ἵππους”, and so on to the number of 16 imperfects, XEN. Cyr. 4.2.28. “προηγόρει δὲ αὐτῶν Θηραμένης”, Hell. 2.2.22; Theramenes was their spokesman.

ISOC.7.51-3 (see above).

LYS. 12.8-9: “ἐγὼ δὲ Πείσωνα μὲν ἠρώτων εἰ βούλοιτό με σῶσαι χρήματα λαβών: ὁ δ᾽ ἔφασκεν, εἰ πολλὰ εἴη” .

PLATO, Theaet. 143A: “καὶ ὁσάκις Ἀθήναζε ἀφικοίμην, ἐπανηρώτων τὸν Σωκράτη ὃ μὴ ἐμεμνήμην, καὶ δεῦρο ἐλθὼν ἐπηνωρθούμην”.

XEN. Cyr. 4.2.28 (see above). Hell. 2.2.22 (see above). Ibid. 2.4.33: “ἠκόντιζον, ἔβαλλον, ἐτόξευον, ἐσφενδόνων”. Ibid. 4.3.19: “ἐωθοῦντο, ἐμάχοντο, ἀπέκτεινόν, ἀπέθνῃσκον”. Ibid. 6.4.36: “εἴχετο τοῦ ῥόπτρου, ἕως ἀπέθανεν ὁ ἀνήρ”. Ibid. 7.2.6-8. (In the spirited account of the fight the imperfect outnumbers the aorist 5 to 1.)

THUC.3.81.3: “ὡς ἑώρων τὰ γιγνόμενα, διέφθειρον αὐτοῦ ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ ἀλλήλους καὶ ἐκ τῶν δένδρων τινὲς ἀπήγχοντο, οἱ δ᾽ ὡς ἕκαστοι: ἐδύναντο ἀνηλοῦντο”.

HDT.7.173: “ἐστρατήγεε δὲ Λακεδαιμονίων . . . Εὐαίνετος”. 8.137 (see above).

AR. Ach. 185: “ἐγὼ δ᾽ ἔφευγον: οἱ δ᾽ ἐδίωκον κἀβόων”. Eq. 46-8: “οὗτος καταγνοὐς τοῦ γέροντος τοὺς τρόπους”, | . . . | “ᾔκαλλ̓, ἐθώπεὐ, ἐκολάκεὐ, ἐξηπάτα”. Av. 1282: “ἐκόμων, ἐπείνων, ἐρρύπων, ἐσωκράτων” .

EUR. Hipp. 1194-8: “ἐπῆγε . . . εἱπόμεσθα . . . εἰσεβάλλομεν”.

SOPH. Ai. 298-300: “ηὐχένιζε . . . ἔσφαζε κὰρράχιζε . . . ᾐκίζεθ᾽” .

AESCHYL. Pers. 416-26: “ἔθραυον . . . ἔθεινον . . . ὑπτιοῦτο . . . ἐπλήθυον . . . ἠρέσσετο . . . ἔπαιον, ἐρράχιζον”.

PIND. P. 4.240-1: “ὤρεγον χεῖρας . . . ἔρεπτον . . . ἀγαπάζοντ”（“ο”).

HOM. Od. 1.110-2: “οἱ μὲν ἄρ᾽ οἶνον ἔμισγον . . . οἱ δ”（“ὲ”) . . . “τραπέζας νίζον καὶ πρότιθεν, τοὶ δὲ κρέα πολλὰ δατεῦντο”.

Il. 1.249: “τοῦ καὶ ἀπὸ γλώσσης μέλιτος γλυκίων ῥέεν αὐδή”.

[*] 208. Imperfect with definite numbers.

With definite numbers, the aorist is employed (see 243), but when there is a notion of interruption or of continuance into another stage (overlapping), the imperfect is used.

“ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐποίει τέτταρας ἡμέρας”, XEN. Hell. 2.1.24; He kept this up four days (but on the fifth, “ἐπεὶ ἦν ἡμέρα πέμπτη”, § 27). “καταβὰς δὲ κάτω ἐς τὸ κατάγαιον οἴκημα διαιτᾶτο ἐπ᾽ ἔτεα τρία: . . . τετάρτῳ δὲ ἔτεϊ ἐφάνη τοῖσι Θρήιξι”, HDT.4.95; He went down into the underground room and lived there for three years, but in the fourth he appeared to the Thracians.

DEM.19.78: “τέτταρας μῆνας ὅλους ἐσῴζονθ᾽ οἱ Φωκεῖς τοὺς ὕστερον, ἡ δὲ τούτου ψευδολογία μετὰ ταῦθ̓ ὕστερον αὐτοὺς ἀπώλεσεν”.

XEN. Hell. 2.1.24 (see above). Ibid. 2.2.16-7: “διέτριβε παρὰ Λυσάνδρῳ τρεῖς μῆνας καὶ πλέον . . . ἐπεὶ δὲ ἧκε τετάρτῳ μηνί, ἀπήγγειλεν κτἑ”.

THUC.4.69.3: “καὶ ταύτην μὲν τὴν ἡμέραν ὁλην εἰργάζοντο: τῇ δ᾽ ὑστεραίᾳ περὶ δείλην τὸ τεῖχος ὅσον οὐκ ἀπετετέλεστο, καὶ οἱ ἐν τῇ Νισαίᾳ δείσαντες . . . ξυνέβησαν τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις”.

HDT.1.18-9: “ἐπολέμεε ἔτεα ἕνδεκα . . . τῷ δὲ δυωδεκάτῳ ἔτεϊ . . . συνηνείχθη τι τοιόνδε γενέσθαι πρῆγμα”. 4.95 (see above). 4.158: “τοῦτον οἴκεον τὸν χῶρον ἓξ ἔτεα: ἑβδόμῳ δέ σφεας ἔτεϊ . . . οἱ Λιβύες . . . ἀνέγνωσαν ἐκλιπεῖν”. 7.191: “ἡμέρας γὰρ δὴ ἐχείμαζε τρεῖσ᾽ τέλος δὲ ἔντομά τε ποιεῦντες καὶ καταείδοντες γόησι οἱ Μάγοι τῷ ἀνέμῳ . . . ἔπαυσαν τετάρτῃ ἡμέρῃ”.

AR. Thesm. 502-3: “ἑτέραν δ᾽ ἐγᾦδ᾽ ἣ ᾿φασκεν ὠδίνειν γυνὴ” | “δέχ᾽ ἡμέρας, ἕως ἐπρίατο παιδίον”.

HOM. Od. 2.106 sqq. 3.118 sq. 304 sqq. 4.360 sqq. 5.278 sq. 388 sqq. 7.253 sq. 259 sqq. 267 sqq. 9.74 sqq. 9.82 sqq. 10.80 sq. 142 sqq. 14.240 sqq. 250 sqq. 285 sqq.

Il. 9.470 sqq. 21.45 sqq.

[*] 209. The above succession of imperfect and aorist is the type, but there are variations.

“ἡμέρας μὲν πέντε ἡσύχαζον, τῇ δ᾽ ἕκτῃ ἐτάσσοντο ἀμφότεροι ὡς ἐς μάχην”, THUC.3.107.3; Five days they kept quiet, but on the sixth both parties began to draw up as for battle.

THUC.3.107.3(see above).

HDT.7. 20: “ἐπὶ μὲν τέσσερα ἔτεα πλήρεα παραρτέετο στρατιήν τε καὶ . . ., πέμπτῳ δὲ ἔτεϊ ἀνομένῳ ἐστρατηλάτεε χειρὶ μεγάλῃ πλήθεος”.

HOM. Od. 10.28 sqq.: “ἐννῆμαρ μὲν ὁμῶς πλέομεν νύκτας τε καὶ ἦμαρ”, | “τῇ δεκάτῃ δ᾽ ἤδη ἀνεφαίνετο πατρὶς ἄρουρα”, | “καὶ δὴ πυρπολέοντας ἐλεύσσομεν ἐγγὺς ἐόντας:” | “ἔνθ᾽ ἐμὲ μὲν γλυκὺς ὕπνος ἐπήλυθε κεκμηῶτα”. (Only an apparent exception. The action is interrupted by the “ἐπήλυθε”.)

“ ἐννῆμαρ ξείνισσε καὶ ἐννέα βοῦς ἱέρευσεν
ἀλλ᾽ ὅτε δὴ δεκάτη ἐφάνη ῥοδοδάκτυλος ἠώς,
καὶ τότε μιν ἐρέεινε καὶ ἤτεε σῆμα ἰδέσθαι
”
Il. 6.174-6:

. (Aorist followed by imperfect.)

[*] 210. When the imperfect alone is used, the definite statement is an afterthought, or, at all events, the matter is not fully disposed of by the narrator.

“καὶ ᾤκει ἐν Μεγάροις πλείω ἢ πέντε ἔτη”, LYC.21; He lived at Megara more than five years.

LYC.21(see above).

ISAE. 5.7: “ἐκέκτητο” (plpf.=ipf.) “ἕκαστος δώδεκα ἔτη ἃ ἔλαχε”.

LYS. 21.2: “τὸν δὲ μεταξὺ χρόνον ἐτριηράρχουν ἑπτὰ ἔτη” .

[*] 211. Imperfect and aorist interwoven.

The two tenses are often so combined that the general statement is given by the aorist and the details of the action by the imperfect, or the situation is described by the imperfect and isolated points presented by the aorist.⁴

“[Σωκράτης] τὸ φάρμακον ἔπιεν . . . πῶς ἐτελεύτα”; PLATO , Phaedo, 57 A; Socrates drank the poison. How did he die? (Describe the closing scenes.) “οὐκ ἐξήρκεσε δ᾽ αὐτοῖς ταῦτ᾽ ἐξαμαρτεῖν, ἀλλὰ περὶ τοὺς αὐτοὺς χρόνους ἐπόρθουν μὲν τὴν ἤπειρον, ὕβριζον δὲ τὰς νήσους, ἀνῄρουν δὲ . . . καὶ . . . καθίστασαν, ἐλυμαίνοντο δὲ τὴν Πελοπόννησον καὶ μεστὴν στάσεων καὶ πολέμων ἐποίησαν. ἐπὶ ποίαν γὰρ τῶν πόλεων οὐκ ἐστράτευσαν; ἢ περὶ τίνας αὐτῶν οὐκ ἐξήμαρτον; οὐκ Ἠλείων μὲν μέρος τι τῆς χώρας ἀφείλοντο, τὴν δὲ γῆν τὴν Κορινθίων ἔτεμον, . . . διῴκισαν, . . . ἐξεπολιόρκησαν, . . . εἰσέβαλον, οὐδὲν δ᾽ ἐπαύσαντο τοὺς μὲν ἄλλους κακῶς ποιοῦντες, αὑτοῖς δὲ τὴν ἧτταν τὴν ἐν Λεύκτροις παρασκευάζοντες”; ISOC.8.99-100.

ISOC.5.53-4: “οὐ γὰρ ἔφθασαν τῶν ἐχθρῶν κρατήσαντες καὶ πάντων ἀμελήσαντες ἠνώχλουν μὲν . . . ἐτόλμων . . . ἠπείλουν . . . ἀπεστέρουν . . . ἐπόρθουν . . . ἐξέπεμπον . . . τελευτῶντες δὲ πρὸς Φωκέας πόλεμον ἐξήνεγκαν”. 5.87: “ἔσχε γὰρ διττὰς ἐπιθυμίας . . . προῃρεῖτο γὰρ βασιλεῖ τε πολεμεῖν καὶ τοὺς ἑταίρους . . . καταγαγεῖν”. 8.99-100 (see above).

PLATO , Phaedo, 57 A (see above).

XEN. Hell. 2.3.55-6: “ὡς δὲ ταῦτα εἶπεν, εἷλκε μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ βωμοῦ ὁ Σάτυρος, εἷλκον δὲ οἱ ὑπηρέται. ὁ δὲ Θηραμένης . . . ἐπεκαλεῖτο . . . . ἡ δὲ βουλὴ ἡσυχίαν εἶχεν . . . . οἱ δ᾽ ἀπήγαγον τὸν ἄνδρα κτἑ”.

THUC.3.22(a number of examples of shifting tenses). 4.119.1-3: “ταῦτα ξυνέθεντο καὶ ὤμοσαν Λακεδαιμόνιοι καὶ οἱ ξύμμαχοι Ἀθηναίοις καὶ τοῖς ξυμμάχοις . . . ξυνετίθεντο δὲ καὶ ἐσπένδοντο Λακεδαιμονίων μὲν οἵδε . . . ἡ μὲν δὴ ἐκεχειρία αὕτη ἐγέ νετο, καὶ ξυνῇσαν ἐν αὐτῇ περὶ τῶν μειζόνων σπονδῶν διὰ παντὸς ἐς λόγους” .

HDT.2.162: “τῶν τις Αἰγυπτίων ὄπισθε στὰς περιέθηκέ οἱ κυνέην, καὶ περιτιθεὶς ἔφη ἐπὶ βασιληίῃ περιτιθέναι”. 3.123: “ταῦτα ἀκούσας Πολυκράτης ἥσθη τε καὶ ἐβούλετο”.

HOM. Od. 10.352-67: A string of imperfects followed by a string of aorists.

[*] 212. Interchange of imperfect and aorist.

An actual interchange of tenses is not to be admitted except in the case of a few old preterites, such as “ἦν” and “ἔφην”. In the earliest period the typical difference is held fast. The apparent exceptions, then, may be accounted for by undifferentiated forms, by mistaken meanings, by the distributive or intensive use of the imperfect. So “ἔφην”=“ἔφησα”, but in “ἔπεμπον” the thoughts follow the motion,⁵ and “ἐκέλευον” is “I gave orders,” “urged.”

“ὁ Κροῖσος ἔπεμπε ἐς Σπάρτην ἀγγέλους . . . οἱ δὲ ἐλθόντες ἔλεγον “ἔπεμψε ἡμέας Κροῖσος κτἑ”.”, HDT.1.69.

ANTIPH.6.27: “εἰ μὲν ἐγὼ τούτων προκαλουμένων μὴ ἠθέλησα τοὺς παραγενομένους ἀποφῆναι, ἢ θεράποντας ἐξαιτοῦσι μὴ ἤθελον ἐκδιδόναι . . . αὐτὰ ἂν ταῦτα μέγιστα τεκμήρια κατ᾽ ἐμοῦ ἐποιοῦντο ὅτι ἀληθὴς ἦν ἡ αἰτία”.

THUC.2.71.2-3: “Παυσανίας γὰρ . . . ἀπεδίδου Πλαταιεῦσι γῆν καὶ πόλιν τὴν σφετέραν ἔχοντας αὐτονόμους οἰκεῖν κτἑ. τάδε μὲν ἡμῖν πατέρες οἱ ὑμέτεροι ἔδοσαν κτἑ”. 3.58.5: “Παυσανίας μὲν γὰρ ἔθαπτεν αὐτοὺς νομίζων ἐν γῇ τε φιλίᾳ τιθέναι καὶ παρ᾽ ἀνδράσι τοιούτοις κτἑ” . 7.20.1-2: “περί τε Πελοπόννησον ναῦς τριάκοντα ἔστειλαν καὶ Χαρικλέα τὸν Ἀπολλοδώρου ἄρχοντα, . . . καὶ τὸν Δημοσθένη ἐς τὴν Σικελίαν, ὥσπερ ἔμελλον, ἀπέστελλον” .

HDT.1.69(see above). 3.41: “διζήμενος δὲ εὕρισκε τόδε”. 8.136: “Μαρδόνιος δὲ . . . μετὰ ταῦτα ἔπεμψε ἄγγελον ἐς Ἀθήνας Ἀλέξανδρον τὸν Ἀμύντεω …, ἅμα μὲν ὅτι . . . ἅμα τε ὁ Μαρδόνιος πυθόμενος ὅτι πρόξεινός τε εἴη καὶ εὐεργέτης ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος ἔπεμπε. . . . τοῖσι δὴ πειθόμενος ἔπεμπε”.

EUR. Or. 552: “πατὴρ μὲν έφύτευσέν με, σὴ δ᾽ ἔτικτε παῖς” .

PIND. See B. L. G. on P. 4.114 and 247, and on P. 5.76: “μοῖρά τις ἄγεν” as compared with ibid. 87: “τοὺς Ἀριστοτέλης ἄγαγε”. O. 6.41, on “ἔτικτε”.

HOM. Od. 4.5: “τὴν μὲν Ἀχιλλῆος ῥηξήνορος υἱέι πέμπεν”. Ibid. 8: “τὴν ἄρ᾽ ὅ γ̓ ἔνθ̓ ἵπποισι καὶ ἅρμασι πέμπε νέεσθαι”.

Il. 2.42 sqq.: “ἕζετο δ᾽ ὀρθωθείς, μαλακὸν δ᾽ ἔνδυνε χιτῶνα”, | “καλόν νηγάτεον, περὶ δὲ μέγα βάλλετο φᾶρος:” | “ποσσὶ δ᾽ ὕπο λιπαροῖσιν ἐδήσατο καλὰ πέδιλα:” | “ἀμφὶ δ᾽ ἄῤ ὤμοισιν βάλετο ξίφος ἀργυρόηλον, κτἑ”.

“ αὐτοῦ μιν κατέρυκε, δίδου δ᾽ ὅγε θυγατέρα ἥν,
δῶκε δέ οἱ τιμῆς βασιληίδος ἥμισυ πάσης
”
6.192-3:

. 7.303-5: “ὣς ἄρα φωνήσας δῶκε ξίφος ἀργυρόηλον . . . Αἴας δὲ ζωστῆρα δίδου φοίνικι φαεινόν”.

[*] 213. Imperfect of endeavor.

The imperfect is used of attempted and interrupted, of intended and expected actions.⁶

“ἃ” (sc. “τὰ πατρῷα”) “πάντ᾽ ἐμὰ ἐγίγνετο”, DEM.39.6; All of which (i. e. my father's estate) was going to be mine. “τὸ χωρίον ἐπώλει”, ISAE. 2.28; He was for selling the piece of ground. “οὐ παίδων ἕνεκα ἐγάμει”, ISAE. 6.24; It was not for the sake of children that he wanted to marry. “ἀπωλλύμην” (= “ᾔδη ἀπολούμενος”), ANTIPHON, 2 “β” 3; I knew (expected) that I was going to be ruined.

DEM.19.46: “καὶ ὑμεῖς ἐγελᾶτε”, And you started to laugh. 39.6 (see above). [49], 2: “σφαλέντος μὲν τούτου ἀπώλλυτο καὶ τῷ πατρὶ τῷ ἐμῷ τὸ συμβόλαιον”. 54.33: “τούτῳ δὲ μὴ παρασχομένῳ τούτους μάρτυρας ἦν” (=“ἔμελλεν ἔσεσθαι”) “δήπου λόγος οὐδείς, ἀλλ᾽ ἡλωκέναι παραχρῆμ᾽ ὑπῆρχε σιωπῇ”.

ISAE. 2.28 (see above). 5.44: “ἐγίγνετο”. 6.24 (see above).

ISOC.5.48: “μὴ κατορθώσαντες μὲν εὐθὺς ἀπώλλυντο”. 10.36: “ὁ μὲν τὸν δῆμον καθίστη κύριον τῆς πολιτείας, οἱ δὲ μόνον αὐτὸν ἄρχειν ἠξίουν”.

LYS.7.32: “ταῦτα δὲ πράξας . . . ἐκέρδαινον μὲν οὐδέν, ἐμαυτὸν δ᾽ εἰς κίνδυνον καθίστην” .

ANTIPHON, 2 “β” 3 (see above). 2 “β” 9: “ἁλοὺς μὲν γὰρ . . . τῆς μὲν οὐσίας ᾔδη ἐκστησόμενος, τοῦ δὲ σώματος καὶ τῆς πόλεως οὐκ ἀπεστερούμην”.

PLATO, Phaedr. 230A: “ἀτάρ, ὦ ἑταῖρε, . . . ἆρ᾽ οὐ τόδε ἦν τὸ δένδρον, ἐφ̓ ὅπερ ἦγες ἡμᾶς”; But, my friend, isn't this the tree to which you were going to, wanted to, started out to, take us?

XEN. Cyr. 5.5.22: “οὐκοῦν τούτου τυχὼν παρὰ σοῦ οὐδὲν ἤνυτον, εἰ μὴ τούτους πείσαιμι”. Hell. 1.7.7: “τοιαῦτα λέγοντες ἔπειθον τὸν δῆμον . . . ἔδοξε δὲ ἀναβαλέσθαι εἰς ἑτέραν ἐκκλησίαν”.

THUC.4.68.5: “ἀσφάλεια δὲ αὐτοῖς μᾶλλον ἐγίγνετο τῆς ἀνοίξεως”.

HDT.1.68: “ἐ μισθοῦτο παρ᾽ οὐκ ἐκδιδόντος τὴν αὐλήν”. 3.139: “ἐπεθύμησε τῆς χλανίδος καὶ αὐτὴν προσελθὼν ὠνέετο. ὁ δὲ Συλοσῶν . . . λέγει “ἐγὼ ταύτην πωλέω μὲν οὐδενὸς χρήματος, δίδωμι δὲ ἄλλως”.” 8.60: “παρεόντων γὰρ τῶν συμμάχων οὐκ ἔφερέ οἱ κόσμον οὐδένα κατηγορέειν”. 8.63: “ἀπολιπόντων γὰρ Ἀθηναίων οὐκέτι ἐγίνοντο ἀξιόμαχοι οἱ λοιποί”.

AR. Vesp. 116-7: “ἀνέπειθεν αὐτὸν μὴ φορεῖν τριβώνιον” | “μηδ᾽ ἐξιέναι θύραζ̓: ὁ δ᾽ οὐκ ἐπείθετο”.

EUR. H. F. 465: “ἀμφέβαλλε” (= “ἔμελλεν ἀμφιβαλεῖν”). I. T. 26-9: “ἐλθοῦσα δ᾽ Αὐλίδ᾽ ἡ τάλαιν̓ ὑπὲρ πυρᾶς” | “μεταρσία ληφθεῖσ᾽ ἐκαινόμην ξίφει:” | “ἀλλ᾽ ἐξέκλεψεν” . . . | “Ἄρτεμις”.

HOM. Il. 3.79-80: “τῷ δ᾽ ἐπετοξάζοντο κάρη κομάοντες Ἀχαιοὶ” | “ἰοῖσίν τε τιτυσκόμενοι λάεσσί τ᾽ ἔβαλλον”. 5.318: “ἡ μὲν ἑὸν φίλον υἱὸν ὑπεξέφερεν πολέμοιο”. 5.377: “ὑπεξέφερον”. 9.465: “κατερήτυον”.

Perfect Tense

[*] 226. The perfect tense expresses completion in the present, and hence is sometimes called the present perfect.

“ἀκηκόατε, ἑωράκατε, πεπόνθατε,” LYS. 12.100 ; You have heard, you have seen. you have felt. “ἐμπεπλήκασιν ὑμῶν τὰ ὦτα”, PLATO, Apol. 23E; They have filled your ears. “τέθαπται . . . Κίμων πρὸ τοῦ ἄστεος”, HDT.6.103; Kimon (has been, is) lies buried before the city.

DEM.3.22: “προπέποται . . . τὰ τῆς πόλεως πράγματα”. 4.48: “πρέσβεις πέπομφεν ὡς βασιλέα”. 6.37: “ἱκανῶς εἴρηται”.

AESCHIN.2.147: “ἔτη γὰρ ἤδη βεβίωκεν ἐνενήκοντα καὶ τέτταρα”. 3.186: “ἐνταῦθα ἡ ἐν Μαραθῶνι μάχη γἐγραπται”.

PLATO, Apol. 23E (see above). Gorg. 448 A: “οὐδείς μέ πω ἠρώτηκε καινὸν οὐδὲν πολλῶν ἐτῶν”. Meno 93 A: “ἔμοιγε . . . καὶ εἶναι δοκοῦσιν ἐνθάδε ἀγαθοὶ τὰ πολιτικά, καὶ γεγονέναι ἔτι οὐχ ἧττον ἢ εἶναι”. Prot. 314 D: “οὐκ ἀκηκόατε, ὅτι οὐ σχολὴ αὐτῷ”;

XEN. Hell. 6.5.37: “δένδρα ἐκκεκόφασι καὶ οἰκἰας κατακεκαύκασι καὶ χρήματα καὶ πρόβατα διηρπάκασι”.

HDT.6.103(see above). 7.162: “ἐκ τοῦ ἐνιαυτοῦ τὸ ἔαρ . . . ἐξαραίρηται”.

SOPH. Ai. 480: “πάντ᾽ ἀκήκοας λόγον” .

PIND. O. 10.1-3: “τὸν Ὀλυμπιονίκαν ἀνάγνωτέ μοι” | . . . “πόθι φρενὸς” | “ἐμᾶς γέγραπται” (stands written).

HOM. Od. 2.63-4: “οὐ γὰρ ἔτ᾽ ἀνσχετὰ ἔργα τετεύχαται, οὐδ᾽ ἔτι καλῶς” | “οἶκος ἐμὸς διόλωλε”.

Il. 1.125: “ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πολίων ἒξ ἐπράθομεν, τὰ δέδασται”.

[*] 227. The perfect looks at both ends of an action. The time between these ends is considered as a present. When one end is considered, the present is used; when the other, the aorist. Hence present and perfect are often used side by side, and the translation into English is often present (228); the aorist is the shorthand of the perfect (248-51); and the perfect is sometimes used even of a past action that is dated (233).

[*] 228. Perfect of maintenance of result.

The perfect is largely used in Greek for the maintenance of the result, and the translation into English is often present: “κέκλημαι”, my name is; “μέμνημαι”, I have recalled, I remember; “κέκτημαι”, I have got, I own; “εἴθισμαι”, I have made it my rule, I am accustomed.

“καλὸν . . . τέχνημα ἄρα κέκτησαι, εἴπερ κέκτησαι”, PLATO, Prot. 319A; A fine contrivance is that you have got, to be sure, IF you have got it.

AESCHIN.3.144: “συνείθισθε ἤδη τἀδικήματα τὰ τούτου ἀκούειν”.

ANTIPHON, 5.54: “τέθνηκεν ὁ ἀνήρ”.

PLATO, Prot. 319A (see above). Tim. 23 B: “ἕνα γῆς κατακλυσμὸν μέμνησθε πολλῶν ἔμπροσθεν γεγονότων”.

XEN. Oec. 9.4: “πρὸς μεσημβρίαν ἀναπέπταται” (sc. “ἡ οἰκία”).

THUC.3.82.7: “ῥᾷον δ᾽ οἱ πολλοὶ κακοῦργοι ὄντες δεξιοὶ κέκληνται ἢ ἀμαθεῖς ἀγαθοί”.

HDT.2.47: “ὗν δὲ Αἰγύπτιοι μιαρὸν ἥγηνται θηρίον εἶναι”. 4.28: “τέρας νενόμισται”. 6.103 (226).

AR. Ach. 993: “ἢ πάνυ γερόντιον ἴσως νενόμικάς με σύ”;

SOPH. El. 1101: “Αἴγισθον ἔνθ᾽ ᾤκηκεν ἱστορῶ πάλαι”.

PIND. P. 4.248: “πολλοῖσι δ᾽ ἅγημαι σοφίας ἑτέροις”.

SAPPHO, 2.9-10: “ἀλλὰ καμ μὲν γλῶσσα ἔαγε, λέπτον δ᾽” | “αὔτικα χρῷ πῦρ ὐπαδεδρόμακεν”.

HES. Theog. 726: “ἐλήλαται”. 727: “κέχυται”. 728: “πεφύασι”. 730: “κεκρύφαται”.

HOM. Od. 5.412: “λισσὴ δ᾽ ἀναδέδρομε πέτρη”. 6.44-5: “ἀλλὰ μάλ᾽ αἴθρη” | “πέπταται ἀννέφελος, λευκὴ δ᾽ ἐπιδέδρομεν αἴγλη”.

[*] 229. Intensive perfect.

Not to be confounded with this use, which has many English analogies, is the survival of the old intensive perfects, chiefly in verbs of sound and verbs of emotion.

Verbs of Sound (Onomatopoetic Verbs):

Most of these are poetic or popular. “κέκραγα”, I am bawling, bawling; “σεσίγηκα”, I am mum.

“λαβὼν μὲν σεσίγηκας, ἀναλώσας δὲ κέκραγας”, AESCHIN.3.218; When you get money you are mum, when you have spent it you are in full cry.

AESCHIN.3.218(see above).

HDT.4.183: “τετρίγασι κατά περ αἱ νυκτερίδες”.

AR. Vesp. 944: “τί σεσιώπηκας”;

SOPH. Tr. 1072: “βέβρυχα κλάων”.

HES. O. et D. 207: “δαιμονίη, τί λέληκας”;

HOM. Od. 5.411-2: “ἀμφὶ δὲ κῦμα” | “βέβρυχεν ῥόθιον”.

Il. 4.433-5: “ὄιες . . . ἑστήκασιν . . . ἀζηχὲς μεμακυῖαι”. 10.362: “μεμηκώς”. 17.264: “βέβρυχεν μέγα κῦμα”.

[*] 230. Emotional Perfects:

“δέδια”, I am in a perfect tremble, I quiver and quake. “δέδἰ ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι μὴ τούτοις μετ᾽ ἐκείνου πολεμεῖν ἀναγκασθῶμεν”, DEM.14.4.

DEM.4.8: “μισεῖ τις ἐκεῖνον καὶ δέδι”（“ε”) . . . “καὶ φθονεῖ . . . κατέπτηχε μέντοι πάντα νῦν”. 14.4 (see above). 25.1: “ἓν δὲ τεθαύμακα”.

PLATO , Phaedo 64 D: “φαίνεταί σοι φιλοσόφου ἀνδρὸς εἶναι ἐσπουδακέναι περὶ τὰς ἡδονὰς καλουμένας”; Theaet. 161 B-C: “οἶσθ᾽ οὖν . . . ὃ θαυμάζω . . .; . . . τὴν δ᾽ ἀρχὴν τοῦ λόγου τεθαύμακα”.

SOPH. Ai. 139: “μέγαν ὄκνον ἔχω καὶ πεφόβημαι” .

SIMON. AM. 7.28: “τὴν μὲν γελᾷ τε καὶ γέγηθεν ἡμέρην”.

TYRT.12.28: “ἀργαλέῳ τε πόθῳ πᾶσα κέκηδε πόλις”.

HOM. Od. 6.106: “γέγηθε δέ τε φρένα Λητώ”.

Il. 10.93-4: “οὐδέ μοι ἦτορ” | “ἔμπεδον, ἀλλ᾽ ἀλαλύκτημαι”.

[*] 231. Verbs of Sight:

“δέδορκα”, I look. The classification cannot always be exact. “τεθαύμακα”, I am astonished, is also “τεθαύμακα”, I am agaze.

PIND. O. 1.96-7: “τὸ δὲ κλέος” | “τηλόθεν δέδορκε” (intr.) “τᾶν Ὀλυμπιάδων”.

HES. O. et D. 508: “μέμυκε δὲ γαῖα καὶ ὕλη”.

HOM. Od. 19.446: “πῦρ δ᾽ ὀφθαλμοῖσι δεδορκώς”.

So also the solitary Verb of Smell, for which see HOM. Od. 9.210.

[*] 232. Verbs of Gesture, Expression, and the like:

“ἐσκυθρωπάκασι”, DEM.54.34; They are grim and grum. “δεδραγμένος”, grimly gripping. “κέχηνα”, I am all agape.

DEM.54.34(see above).

AR. Eq. 755: “κέχηνεν”. 1118-9: “πρὸς τόν τε λέγοντ᾽ ἀεὶ” | “κέχηνας”.

HES. Theog. 826: “γλώσσῃσιν δνοφερῇσι λελιχμότες”.

HOM. Od. 11.222: “ψυχὴ . . . πεπότηται”.

Il. 2.90: “πεποτήαται”, They are all a-flutter. 13.393: “κόνιος δεδραγμένος αἱματοέσσης”, With his fists full of bloody dust.

For the use of the Aorist as a Perfect, see 248-51.

[*] 233. Perfect of an action that is dated.

The Greek perfect may be used of a past action even when it is dated.

“ἐπιδέδεικται τότε”, ISAE. 3.7; It has been shown (nay, was shown) then.

LYCURG.103: “Ἕκτωρ γὰρ τοῖς Τρωσὶ παρακελευόμενος ὑπὲρ τῆς πατρίδος τάδε εἴρηκεν”.

DEM.21.7: “ὕβρισμαι μὲν ἐγὼ καὶ προπεπηλάκισται τὸ σῶμα τοὐμὸν τότε, ἀγωνιεῖται δὲ καὶ κριθήσεται τὸ πρᾶγμα νυνί”. 38.8: “πάντα [ταῦτ᾽] ἀφεῖται τότε”.

ISAE. 3.7 (see above).

[*] 234. Perfect for future perfect.

As the present may be used rhetorically for the future, so the perfect may be used for the future perfect.

“εἰ γὰρ προλείψεις μ”（“ε”) . . ., “οἰχόμεσθα” (“οἰχόμεσθα” is a practical perfect), EUR. Or. 304-5; If thou shalt abandon me, I am gone (lost).

AESCHIN.1.90: “εἰ γὰρ ἡ μὲν πρᾶξις αὕτη ἔσται . . ., ὁ δὲ . . . εἰδὼς . . . ἔνοχος ἔσται . . ., ὁ δὲ κρινόμενος . . . ἀξιώσει . . ., ἀνῄρηται ὁ νόμος καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια, καὶ δέδεικται φανερὰ ὁδός, δἰ ἧς κτἑ”.

ANDOC.1.146: “ἐάν με νυνὶ διαφθείρητε, οὐκ ἔστιν ὑμῖν ἔτι λοιπὸς τοῦ γένους τοῦ ἡμετέρου οὐδείς, ἀλλ᾽ οἴχεται πᾶν πρόρριζον”.

PLATO, Hipparch. 231C-D: “φέρε γάρ, ἐάν τις χρυσίου σταθμὸν ἥμισυν ἀναλώσας διπλάσιον λάβῃ ἀργυρίου, κέρδος ἢ ζημίαν εἴληφεν” (=“εἰληφὼς ἔσται”);

“ εἰ γὰρ προλείψεις μ᾽ ἢ προσεδρίᾳ νόσον
κτήσῃ τιν̓, οἰχόμεσθα
”
EUR. Or. 304-5:

(see above).

SOPH. O. R. 1166: “ὄλωλας, εἴ σε ταῦτ᾽ ἐρήσομαι πάλιν”. Ph. 75-6: “ὥστ᾽ εἴ με τόξων ἐγκρατὴς αἰσθήσεται”, | “ὄλωλα καὶ σὲ προσδιαφθερῶ ξυνών”.

On the Periphrastic Perfect, see 286-8.

On the Gnomic Perfect, see 257.

Pluperfect Tense

[*] 235. The Pluperfect denotes completion in the past. It may be defined as the perfect of the past, and hence is naturally associated with the imperfect. It is more distinctly than in Latin and in English the tense of fixed condition.

“σπανιώτερα τὰ ἐπιτήδεια ἦν: τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀνήλωτο, τὰ δὲ διήρπαστο, τὰ δὲ ἐξεκέχυτο, τὰ δὲ κατεκέκαυτο”, XEN. Hell. 6.5.50; Provisions were rather scarce; for part had been used up, part plundered, part spilled, part burned.

LYS.13.20: “ἡ δὲ βουλὴ . . . διέφθαρτο καὶ ὀλιγαρχίας ἐπεθύμει” . 13.52: “πλοῖα παρεσκεύαστο καὶ οἱ ἐγγυηταὶ ἕτοιμοι ἦσαν” .

XEN. Cyr. 3.2.11: “ἐπεὶ δὲ ἠριστήκεσαν, . . . εὐθὺς ἐτείχιζε φρούριον”. Hell. 1.1.32: “ἐπὶ δὲ τὸ ναυτικόν, ὃ ἐκεῖνος ἠθροίκει . . ., εξεπέμφθη Κρατησιππίδας”. Ibid. 1.3.20: “ἐπεὶ δὲ αὐτοῖς παρεσκεύαστο, νυκτὸς ἀνοίξαντες τὰς πύλας . . . εἰσήγαγον τὸ στράτευμα”, When they had all their preparations made, they opened the gates by night and introduced the army. Ibid. 6.5.21: “ἐκ γὰρ τῆς πρόσθεν ἀθυμίας ἐδόκει τι ἀνειληφέναι τὴν πόλιν, ὅτι καὶ ἐνεβεβλήκει εἰς τὴν Ἀρκαδίαν καὶ δῃοῦντι τὴν χώραν οὐδεὶς ἠθελήκει μάχεσθαι”. Ibid. 6.5.23: “οἱ . . . Θηβαῖοι καλῶς σφίσιν ᾤοντο ἔχειν, ἐπεὶ ἐβεβοηθήκεσαν μέν, πολέμιον δὲ οὐδένα ἔτι ἑώρων ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ”. Ibid. 6.5.50 (see above). Ibid. 7.5.21: “ἐπεί γε μὴν έτέτακτο αὐτῷ τὸ στράτευμα . . ., τὴν . . . συντομωτάτην πρὸς τοὺς πολεμίους οὐκ ἦγε”.

THUC.2.59.1: “ἠλλοίωντο τὰς γνώμας”. 4.29.2: “ὥρμηντο διακινδυνεῦσαι” .

HDT.1.85: “ὁ Κροῖσος τὸ πᾶν ἐς αὐτὸν ἐπεποιήκεε . . . καὶ δὴ καὶ ἐς Δελφοὺς περὶ αὐτοῦ ἐπεπόμφεε”. 8.72: “Ὀλύμπια δὲ καὶ Κάρνεια παροιχώκεε ἤδη”.

PIND. O. 6.53-4: “ἀλλ᾽ ἐν κέκρυπτο γὰρ σχοίνῳ” .

HES. Sc. 143: “ἠλήλαντο”. 154: “τέτυκτο”. 208: “ἐτέτυκτο”. 218: “ἐστήρικτο”. 288: “ἐστάλατ”（“ο”).

HYMN. HOM. I, 91-102: “Λητὼ δ᾽ ἐννῆμάρ τε καὶ ἐννέα νύκτας ἀέλπτοις” | “ὠδίνεσσι πέπαρτο . . . αἳ δ᾽ Ἶριν προὔπεμψαν κτἑ”. (cf. 208).

HOM. Od. 4.132: “χρυσῷ δ᾽ ἔπι χείλεα κεκράαντο”. 4.135: “τετάνυστο”.

Il. 5.387-90: “χαλκέῳ δ᾽ ἐν κεράμῳ δέδετο τρεῖς καὶ δέκα μῆνας”. | . . . “ὃ δ᾽ ἐξέκλεψεν Ἄρηα” (cf. 208). 10.155-6: “εὗδ᾽, ὑπὸ δ᾽ ἔστρωτο ῥινὸν βοὸς ἀγραύλοιο”, | “αὐτὰρ ὑπὸ κράτεσφι τάπης τετάνυστο φαεινός”. 10.540: “οὔ πω πᾶν εἴρητο ἔπος, ὅτ᾽ ἄῤ ἤλυθον αὐτοί”.

For the Greek use of the Aorist, where English and Latin would use the Pluperfect, see 253.

[*] 236. Pluperfect of rapid relative completion.

The pluperfect is sometimes used to denote rapid relative completion. The later Greek writers often abuse it.⁸

“τούτων γνωσθέντων οὐδεμίαν διατριβὴν ἐποιησάμην, ἀλλ᾽ εὐθὺς παρεκέκληντο μὲν οὓς εἶπον, προειρηκὼς δ᾽ ἦν αὐτοῖς, ἐφ̓ ἃ συνεληλυθότες ἦσαν, ἀνέγνωστο δ᾽ ὁ λόγος, ἐπῃνημένος δ᾽ ἦν καὶ τεθορυβημένος καὶ τετυχηκὼς ὧνπερ οἱ κατορθοῦντες ἐν ταῖς ἐπιδείξεσιν”, ISOC.12.233.

ISOC.12.233(see above).

XEN. Cyr. 1.4.5: “ταχὺ μὲν . . . ἀφίκετο . . ., ταχὺ δὲ παρῄει . . ., ταχὺ δὲ τὰ ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ θηρία ἀνηλώκει . . . ὥστε ὁ Ἀστυάγης οὐκέτ᾽ εἶχεν αὐτῷ συλλέγειν θηρία”.

THUC.4.47.1: “ὡς δὲ . . . ἐκπλέοντες ελήφθησαν, ἐλέλυντό τε αἱ σπονδαὶ καὶ τοῖς Κερκυραίοις παρεδέδοντο οἱ πάντες”.

HDT.1.79: “ὡς δέ οἱ ταῦτα ἔδοξε, καὶ ἐποίεε κατὰ τάχος: ἐλάσας γὰρ τὸν στρατὸν ἐς τὴν Λυδίην αὐτὸς ἄγγελος Κροίσῳ ἐληλύθεε”.

HOM. Od. 1.360: “ἣ μὲν θαμβήσασα πάλιν οἶκόνδε βεβήκει”.

Il. 4.134-6: “ἐν δ᾽ ἔπεσε ζωστῆρι ἀρηρότι πικρὸς ὀιστός:” | “διὰ μὲν ἂρ ζωστῆρος ὲλήλατο δαιδαλέοιο” | “καὶ διὰ θώρηκος πολυδαιδάλου ἠρήρειστο”. 13.593-5: “χεῖρα . . . Μενέλαος” | “τὴν βάλεν, ᾗ ῤ̔ ἔχε τόξον ἐύξοον: ἐν δ᾽ ἄρα τόξῳ” | “ἀντικρὺ διὰ χειρὸς ἐλήλατο χάλκεον ἔγχος”.

[*] 237. Pluperfect used as an imperfect.

When the perfect is used as a present (228), the pluperfect is used as an imperfect.

“κακῶν Ἰλιὰς περιειστήκει Θηβαίους”, DEM.19.148; An Iliad of woes was encompassing Thebes (the Thebans). “ἐκεκράγεσαν . . . τοὺς πρυτάνεις ἀφιέναι”, AR. Eq. 674; They kept on bawling “The prytanes must dismiss.”

DEM.19.148(see above).

PLATO, Phaedr. 233D: “οὔτ᾽ ἂν πιστοὺς φίλους ἐκεκτήμεθα”. Theaet. 198 D: “ἃ πάλαι ἐκέκτητο”.

THUC.3.70.3: “ἦν γὰρ . . . ἐθελοπρόξενός τε τῶν Ἀθηναίων καὶ τοῦ δήμου προειστήκει”.

AR. Ach. 10: “ὅτε δὴ ᾿κεχήνη” (sat with mouth open) “προσδοκῶν τὸν Αἰσχύλον”. Eq. 674 (see above).

HES. Sc. 148: “δεινὴ ἔρις πεπότητο” (was afly, “flying all abroad”） “κορύσσουσα κλόνον ἀνδρῶν”. 155: “δεδήει”. 191: “ἕστασαν”. 269: “εἱστήκει”. 274: “ὀρώρει”.

HOM. Od. 9.210: “ὀσμὴ . . . ὀδώδει”.

Il. 8.68: “ἠέλιος μέσον οὐρανὸν ἀμφιβεβήκει”, The sun stood astride the midheaven.

Aorist Tense

[*] 238. The Aorist states a past action without reference to its duration simply as a thing attained. It is one of the two great narrative tenses of the Greek language, and is best studied in connection with the other, the imperfect. Examples are found everywhere.⁹ (Upshot Aorist.)

“Κόνων . . . ἐνίκησε τὴν ἐν Κνίδῳ ναυμαχίαν . . . Ἰφικράτης ἀνεῖλε τὴν Λακεδαιμονίων μόραν”, DIN.1.75; Conon gained the (great) naval victory of (at) Cnidus, Iphicrates annihilated the Lacedaemonian mora.

[*] 239. Ingressive aorist.

The aorist often appears as the point of origin. This is due to the character of the verbs, which are chiefly denominative. Hence this aorist, which is called the ingressive aorist, is usually the first aorist. (Outset Aorist.)

“ἐβασίλευσε . . . Γύγης”, HDT.1.13; Gyges became king.

PLATO, Euthyd. 276D: “ἐγέλασάν τε καὶ ἐθορύβησαν”, They set up a laugh and broke out into applause.¹⁰

XEN. Hell. 2.2, [24]: “Διονύσιος . . . ἐτυράννησε” (=“τύραννος ἐγένετο”), D. became tyrant.

THUC.1.4: “ἦρξέ τε καὶ οἰκιστὴς . . . ἐγένετο”, He acquired the rule and became founder.

HDT.1.13(see above). 1.19: “ἐνόσησε ὁ Ἀλυάττης”, Alyattes fell sick. 7.45: “ὁ Ξέρξης . . . ἐδάκρυσε”, Xerxes burst into tears.

AR. Eccl. 431: “εἶτ᾽ ἐθορύβησαν κἀνέκραγον ὡς εὖ λέγοι”.

AESCHYL. P.V. 235: “ἐγὼ δ᾽ ἐτόλμης”（“α”).

PIND. O. 7.37: “ἀνορούσαισ᾽ ἀλάλαξεν ὑπερμάκει βοᾷ” (gave a wild halloo).

HOM. Il. 3.259: “ῥίγησεν” (gave a shudder) “δ᾽ ὁ γέρων”. 11.546: “τρέσσε”, He took to flight.

[*] 240. So with the moods and verbals: “ἐὰν νοσήσῃ”, if he falls sick; “μὴ νοσήσαιμι”, may I not fall sick; “νοσῆσαι”, to fall sick; “νοσήσας”, having fallen sick=“εἰς νόσον ἐμπεσών”.

ANTIPHON, 2 “β” 1: “ὅταν . . . νοσήσωσιν, ὑγιεῖς γενόμενοι σῴζονται”.

PLATO , Critias, 111B: “νοσήσαντος σώματος ὀστᾶ”. Timae. 84 A: “τὸ δὲ δὴ σάρκας ὀστοῖς ξυνδοῦν ὁπότ᾽ ἂν νοσήσῃ ῾βεξομες δισεασεδ̓ . . . καταψήχεται” .

THUC.2.58.2: “ὥστε καὶ τοὺς προτέρους στρατιώτας νοσῆσαι”.

AR. Pl. 569: “πλουτήσαντες” (257). 834-6: “κἀγὼ μὲν ᾤμην οὓς τέως” | “εὐηργέτησα δεομένους ἕξειν φίλους” | “ὄντως βεβαίους, εἰ δεηθείην ποτέ”.

AESCHYL. P.V. 203: “σπεύδοντες, ὡς Ζεὺς μήποτ᾽ ἄρξειεν” (become lord) “θεῶν”.

[*] 241. Ingressive translation of second aorist.

Ingressive translations are, of course, possible with a number of second aorists, as “ἔστην”, I took a stand, “ἔβην”, I took a step; but there is not the same contrast between state and entrance upon a state as in the first aorist, not the same “πόρευσις εἰς τὸ εἶναι”, as it is called by a late writer, [PLATO ], Deff. 411 A. Especially common is the ingressive translation of “ἔσχον. ἔχω”, I hold, “ἔσχον”, I took hold; “ἔχω”, I possess, I am possessor, have, “ἔσχον”, I took possession, I got. This is all the more natural as “ἔχω” connotes a state and is often used in periphrases with verbal nouns. “αἰτίαν ἔσχον”=“ᾐτιάθην”, got blamed (see 178).

“ὁ δὲ Κυαξάρης . . . τὴν βασιλείαν ἔσχε”=“ἐβασίλευσε”=“βασιλεὺς ἐγένετο”, XEN. Cyr. 1.5.2; Cyaxares succeeded to the throne.

XEN. Cyr. 1.5.2 (see above).

THUC.1.12.3: “Δωριῆς . . . ὀγδοηκοστῷ ἔτει ξὺν Ἡρακλείδαις Πελοπόννησον ἔσχον” (cf. “ᾤκησαν” ibid.). 1.103.4: “καὶ ἔσχον Ἀθηναῖοι Μέγαρα καὶ Πηγάς” . 4.49: “αὐτοὶ Ἀκαρνᾶνες οἰκήτορες ἀπὸ πάντων ἔσχον τὸ χωρίον” . 4.95.3: “τὴν Βοιωτίαν ποτὲ ἔσχον” . 8.23.3: “τοὺς ἀντιστάντας μάχῃ νικήσαντες τὴν πόλιν ἔσχον” . 8.106.1: “τὴν . . . νίκην ταύτην . . . ἔσχον” , They gained this victory.

AR. Ran. 1035: “τιμὴν καὶ κλέος ἔσχεν”.

PIND. O. 2.10: “ἱερὸν ἔσχον οἴκημα ποταμοῦ”. P. 1.65: “ἔσχον δ᾽ Ἀμύκλας ὄλβιοι”. 3.24: “ἔσχε τοιαύταν μεγάλαν ἀϝάταν” (cf. HOM. Il. 16.685: “μέγ᾽ ἀάσθη”).

[*] 242. So with the moods and verbals:

“ἡγούμενοι, εἰ ταύτην” (sc. “τὴν ἡμετέραν πόλιν”) “σχοῖεν, ῥᾳδίως καὶ τἆλλα ἕξειν”, THUC.6.33.2. “τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν . . . σχεῖν”, Ibid. 1.9.2. “τῷ . . . σχόντι γυναῖκα” =“γήμαντι”, Ibid. 2.29.3; Who took to wife.

[*] 243. Aorist of actions of long duration.

The aorist is often used for rapid, individual action. But it is rather the tense of momentum than the tense of momentary action. No matter how long the action, it may be represented by the aorist, and it must be represented by the aorist when it is summed up. With definite numbers the aorist is the rule except as set forth in sections 208-10. (Complexive Aorist.)

“Εὐκτήμων . . . ἐβίω ἔτη ἓξ καὶ ἐνενήκοντα”, ISAE. 6.18; Euctemon lived ninety-six years.

LYCURG.72: “ἐνενήκοντα . . . ἔτη τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἡγεμόνες κατέστησαν”.

DEM.38.12: “τούτων . . . ἐπίτροπος . . . ἐγένεθ᾽ ἑκκαίδεκ̓ ἔτη”, Of these he was (not became) guardian sixteen years.

ISAE. 6.18 (see above).

LYS.12.4: “ἔτη δὲ τριάκοντα ᾤκησε” .

ANDOC.3.4: “ἡμῖν εἰρήνη ἐγένετο . . . ἔτη πεντήκοντα, καὶ ἐνεμείναμεν ἀμφότεροι ταύταις ταῖς σπονδαῖς ἔτη τριακαίδεκα”.

THUC.2.2: “τέσσαρα μὲν γὰρ καὶ δέκα ἔτη ἐνέμειναν αἱ τριακοντούτεις σπονδαί”. 4.6.2: “ἡμέρας . . . πεντεκαίδεκα ἔμειναν ἐν τῇ Ἀττικῇ” , They remained fifteen days in Attica.

HDT.2.157: “Ψαμμήτιχος . . . ἐβασίλευσε Αἰγύπτου τέσσερα καὶ πεντήκοντα ἔτεα”.

AR. Pl. 846: “οὔκ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐνερρίγως᾿ ἔτη τριακαίδεκα”.

HOM. Il. 6.174: “ἐννῆμαρ ξείνισσε” (209).

[*] 244. So of the Moods:

LYCURG.58: “ἓξ ἔτη συνεχω_ς ἀποδημήσας”, Having been abroad for six years continuously.

LYS.24.9: “δεκάκις ἂν ἕλοιτο χορηγῆσαι μᾶλλον ἢ ἀντιδοῦναι ἅπαξ” .

PLATO, Legg. 955A: “δεθῆναι . . . ἐνιαυτόν”, To be put in jail a year.

HDT.1.7: “ἄρξαντες . . . ἔτεα πέντε τε καὶ πεντακόσια”. 1.16. 25.

ANACR. 8: “ἔτεα πεντήκοντά τε καὶ ἑκατὸν . . . βασιλεῦσαι”.

HOM. Il. 6.217: “ἐείκοσιν ἤματ᾽ ἐρύξας” .

[*] 245. Aorist of total negation.

As the aorist is used of one, so it is used of none. Total negation is expressed by the aorist, as resistance to pressure is expressed by the imperfect (216).

“οὐχ εἷλον”, They did not take; “οὐχ ᾕρουν”, They could not take. “οὐκ ἐδέξαντο”, They did not receive; “οὐκ ἐδέχοντο”, They would not receive. “οἱ μὲν οὐκ ἦλθον, οἱ δ᾽ ἐλθόντες οὐδὲν ἐποίουν”, DEM.18.151; Some did not come; some, when they did come, would not do anything.

LYS.3.14: “οὐδεὶς οὔτε κατεάγη τὴν κεφαλὴν οὔτε ἄλλο κακὸν οὐδὲν ἔλαβεν” .

PLATO, Gorg. 471B: “ού μετεμέλησεν αὐτῷ”.

XEN. Conv. 1.14: “οὐκ ἐκίνησε γέλωτα”.

AR. Ach. 34-6: “οὐδεπώποτ᾽ εἶπεν” (sc. “ὁ δῆμος”), “ἄνθρακας πρίω”, | . . . | “ἀλλ᾽ αὐτὸς ἔφερε πάντα”.

AESCHYL. Pers. 179: “οὔτι πω τοιόνδ᾽ ἐναργὲς εἰδόμην”.

PIND. O. 1.47: “οὐδὲ ματρὶ πολλὰ μαιόμενοι φῶτες ἄγαγον”.

HOM. Il. 3.239-40: “ἢ οὐχ ἑσπέσθην Λακεδαίμονος ἐξ ἐρατεινῆς”, | “ἢ δεύρω μὲν ἕποντο κτἑ”.

[*] 246. The same principle applies to the moods. The change of tense from present to aorist is often to be accounted for by a change from positive to negative, and vice versa.

“μηδὲν ἁμαρτεῖν ἐστι θεῶν καὶ πάντα κατορθοῦν”, Epigr.ap. DEM.18.289; To make no blunder and do all things right, (that) is (the province) of the gods (alone).

DEM. (Epigr. ap.), 18.289 (see above).

ISOC.4.11: “ὥσπερ . . . τὸν . . . ἀκριβῶς ἐπιστάμενον λέγειν ἁπλῶς οὐκ ἂν δυνάμενον εἰπεῖν”.

ANTIPHON, 1.6: “ἐξουσία ἦν σαφῶς εἰδέναι . . . οὐκ ἦν πυθέσθαι”.

PLATO , Alc. II, 143 B: “ὅπερ οὖν οὐδεὶς ἂν οἰηθείη, ἀλλὰ τοῦτό γε πᾶς ἂν οἴοιτο ἱκανὸς εἶναι”. Ion, 531 B: “εἰ δὲ σὺ ἦσθα μάντις, οὐκ, εἴπερ περὶ τῶν ὁμοίως λεγομένων οἷός τ᾽ ἦσθα ἐξηγήσασθαι ῟ οὐχ οἷός τ᾽ εἶ ἐξηγήσασθαι）, καὶ περὶ τῶν διαφόρως λεγομένων ἠπίστω ἂν ἐξηγεῖσθαι;”

XEN. An. 2.4.6: “ἀδύνατον διαβῆναι”.

THUC.1.70.2: “τὰ ὑπάρχοντά τε σῴζειν καὶ ἐπιγνῶναι μηδέν”.

AR. Lys. 129: “οὐκ ἂν ποιἠσαιμι” (no metrical necessity).

AESCHYL. P.V. 63: “πλὴν τοῦδ᾽ ἂν οὐδεὶς ἐνδίκως μέμψαιτό μοι” (no metrical necessity).

PIND. N. 8.44-5: “τὸ δ᾽ αὖτις τεὰν ψυχὰν κομίξαι” | “οὔ μοι δυνατόν” (no metrical necessity).

[*] 247. When the negative is the equivalent of the positive present, the present is more frequently used in both members.

“θάρσεε, Γύγη, καὶ μὴ φοβεῦ”, HDT.1.9; Be of good courage, Gyges, and be not afraid. “ἀποστερεῖν καὶ μὴ ἀποδιδόναι”, DEM. [35]DEM., 42.

DEM. [35]DEM., 42(see above).

AESCHIN.2.59: “παρεῖναι καὶ μὴ ἀποδημεῖν”.

HDT.1.9(see above).

HOM. Od. 4.825: “θάρσει, μηδέ τι πάγχυ μετὰ φρεσὶ δείδιθι λίην”.

[*] 248. The aorist for the perfect.

The aorist is very often used where we should expect the perfect.

1. Many verbs form no perfect. So many of the liquid verbs. The aorist is next of kin. In later Greek many mechanical perfects have been formed from the desire of analogy. See Curtius, Verbum II, 211.

“ἀλλὰ Θετταλία πῶς ἔχει; οὐχὶ τὰς πολιτείας καὶ τὰς πόλεις αὐτῶν παρῄρηται, καὶ τετραρχίας κατέστησεν,¹¹ ἵνα μὴ μόνον κατὰ πόλεις, ἀλλὰ καὶ κατ᾽ ἔθνη δουλεύωσιν;” DEM.9.26.

DEM.9.26(see above).

ISOC.5.19-21: “οὐκ ἐλάττω τὴν βασιλείαν πεποίηκεν ἀλλ᾽ εὐχῆς ἄξια διαπέπρακται. τί γὰρ ἐλλέλοιπεν; οὐ . . . πεποίηκεν . . . προσῆκται . . . πεποίηκεν … κατέστραπται . . . εἴληφεν . . . γέγονεν; ἁπάσης δὲ τῆς Θρᾴκης οὓς ἠβουλήθη δεσπότας κατέστησεν”; (A solitary aorist after a long string of perfects.)

AR. Av. 301: “τί φῄς; τίς γλαῦκ᾽ Ἀθήναζ᾽ ἤγαγε;” (No classic perfect.)

AESCHYL. P. V. 28: “τοιαῦτ᾽ ἐπηύρου ῾νο περφεξτ̓ τοῦ φιλανθρώπου τρόπου” .

PIND. O. 10.7-8: “ὁ μέλλων χρόνος” | “ἐμὸν καταίσχυνε βαθὺ χρέος” (see note ad loc.).

HOM. Il. 5.127-8: “ἀχλὺν δ᾽ αὖ τοι ἀπ̓ ὀφθαλμω_ν ἕλον, ἣ πρὶν ἐπῆεν”, | “ὄφρ᾽ εὖ γιγνώσκῃς ἠμὲν θεὸν ἠδὲ καὶ ἄνδρα” (“ᾕρηκα” is not found in Homer).

[*] 249. 2. When the perfect is used as a present, the aorist may take a perfect translation.¹²

“πολλάκις ἐθαύμασα”, XEN. Mem. 1.1.1; I have often wondered. “ἔκτησο . . . αὐτὸς τά περ αὐτὸς ἐκτήσαο”, HDT.7.29; Keep thyself what thyself hast made.

LYS.12.3: “πολλάκις εἰς πολλὴν ἀθυμίαν κατέστην, μὴ . . . ποιήσωμαι” .

HDT.4.97: “οὐ γὰρ ἔδεισά κω μὴ ἑσσωθέωμεν ὑπὸ Σκυθέων μάχῃ”. 7.29 (see above).

EUR. Alc. 541: “τεθνᾶσιν οἱ θανόντες: ἀλλ᾽ ἴθ̓ εἰς δόμους”, Once dead, the dead stay dead. Get thee within. fr. 507: “τί τοὺς θανόντας οὐκ ἐᾷς τεθνηκέναι”;

AESCHYL. Cho. 504: “οὕτω γὰρ οὐ τέθνηκας οὐδέ περ θανών”, Thus (shalt thou show) thou art not dead though thou hast died.

HOM. Od. 1.166-8: “νῦν δ᾽ ὁ μὲν ὣς ἀπόλωλε . . . τοῦ δ᾽ ὤλετο νόστιμον ἦμαρ”.

Il. 13.623-4: “οὐδέ τι . . . ἐδδείσατε”. 772-3: “νῦν ὤλετο πᾶσα κατ᾽ ἄκρης Ἴλιος αἰπεινή”.

[*] 250. 3. The aorist is used from affinity to the negative.

“τῶν οἰκετῶν οὐδένα κατέλιπεν, ἀλλ᾽ ἅπαντας πέπρακε”, AESCHIN.1.99; Not a servant has he left (did he leave), but he has sold them all (they are all sold).

HYPER. Eux. 28: “οὐδ᾽ αὐτὸς ἰδιώτην οὐδένα πώποτε ἐν τῷ βίῳ ἔκρινα . . . τίνας οὖν κέκρικα”;

AESCHIN.1.99(see above).

ISOC.3.35: “φανήσομαι γὰρ οὐδένα μὲν πὠποτ᾽ ἀδικήσας, πλείους δὲ . . . τῶν πολιτῶν . . . εὖ πεποιηκὼς . . . ἢ σύμπαντες οἱ πρὸ ἐμοῦ βασιλεύσαντες”.

[*] 251. 4. Other examples:

ISOC.8.19: “ὁ μὲν τοίνυν πόλεμος ἁπάντων ἡμᾶς τῶν εἰρημένων ἀπεστέρηκεν: καὶ γὰρ πενεστέρους ἐποίησε καὶ πολλοὺς κινδύνους ὑπομένειν ἠνάγκασε καὶ πρὸς τοὺς Ἕλληνας διαβέβληκε καὶ πάντας τρόπους τεταλαιπώρηκεν ἡμᾶς”.

HOM, Il. 4.243-6: “τίφθ᾽ οὕτως ἔστητε τεθηπότες ἠύτε νεβροί”; | “αἵ τ᾽” . . . | “ἑστᾶς᾿”, . . . | “ὣς ὑμεῖς ἔστητε τεθηπότες οὐδὲ μάχεσθε” (“ἔστητε” is here used instead of a perfect in a present sense).

[*] 252. This is especially important in the matter of sequence. See LYS. 12.3 (249), HDT.4.97(249), and HOM. Il. 5.127-8 (248), where the aorist equals the perfect and naturally takes the sequence of the principal tenses.¹³

[*] 253. Aorist translated by the pluperfect.

We often translate the aorist by a pluperfect for the sake of clearness.

“τοῖς ἰδίοις χρήσεσθαι ἔφη, ἃ ὁ πατὴρ αὐτῷ ἔδωκεν”, XEN. Hell. 1.5.3; He said that he would use his own means, which his father had given him.

XEN. Hell. 1.5.3 (see above). 7.2.19: “ὡς δὲ τὴν νύκτα ἠγρύπνησαν, ἐκάθευδον μέχρι πόρρω τῆς ἡμέρας”, As they had been awake all night, they slept until far into the day.

THUC.7.1.3: “τὰς γὰρ ναῦς ἀνείλκυσαν ἐν Ἱμέρᾳ”, The ships they had beached in Himera.

HDT.4.146: “αἱ δὲ ἐπείτε ἐσῆλθον, ποιέουσι τοιάδε”. 147: “δεινὸν ποιεύμενος ἄρχεσθαι ὑπ᾽ ἄλλων ἐπείτε ἐγεύσατο ἀρχῆς”.

For other examples, see Temporal Sentences.

[*] 254. For the difference of the aorist and the pluperfect, compare HDT.3.25: “πρὶν δὲ τῆς ὁδοῦ τὸ πέμπτον μέρος διεληλυθέναι τὴν στρατιήν, αὐτίκα πάντα αὐτοὺς τὰ εἶχον σιτίων ἐχόμενα ἐπελελοίπεε, μετὰ δὲ τὰ σιτία καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια ἐπέλιπε κατεσθιόμενα”, Before they HAD completed the fifth part of the journey, the provisions HAD entirely failed them, and after their provisions their beasts of burden FAILED them.

[*] 255. Gnomic aorist.

The universal present may be represented by the aorist. The principle is that of the generic article. A model individual is made to represent a class. This is called the gnomic aorist, because it is used in maxims, sentences, proverbs (“γνῶμαι”), which delight in concrete illustrations. The gnomic aorist interchanges freely with the present, but does not thereby lose its peculiar effect.¹⁴

“ῥώμη . . . μετὰ μὲν φρονήσεως ὠφέλησεν, ἄνευ δὲ ταύτης πλείω τοὺς ἔχοντας ἔβλαψε”, ISOC. [1]ISOC., 6; Strength with judgment does good, without it does greater harm to those that possess it.

DEM.2.9: “ὅταν μὲν γὰρ ὑπ᾽ εὐνοίας τὰ πράγματα συστῇ, . . . συμπονεῖν … ἐθέλουσιν ἅνθρωποι: ὅταν δ᾽ ἐκ πλεονεξίας καὶ πονηρίας τις ὥσπερ οὗτος ἰσχύσῃ, ἡ πρώτη πρόφασις καὶ μικρὸν πταῖσμα πάντ᾽ ἀνεχαίτισεν καὶ διέλυσεν”. Ibid. 10. 21. 5.12.

ISOC.1.6(see above). 5.38: “ἐπὴν δὲ κακῶς ἀλλήλους διαθῶσιν, οὐδενὸς διαλύοντος αὐτοὶ διέστησαν”.

PLATO, Legg. 720D: “ὁ δὲ ἐλεύθερος” (sc. “ἰατρός”) . . . “διδάσκει τὸν ἀσθενοῦντα αὐτόν, καὶ οὐ πρότερον ἐπέταξε πρὶν ἄν τῃ ξυμπείσῃ”, The physician who is free (and not a slave) instructs the patient himself and does not give a prescription until he in some way succeeds in convincing him. Phaedo 73 D: “οἱ ἐρασταί, ὅταν ἴδωσι λύραν . . . ἢ ἄλλο τι οἷς τὰ παιδικὰ αὐτῶν εἴωθε χρῆσθαι, πάσχουσι τοῦτο: ἔγνωσάν τε τὴν λύραν καὶ ἐν τῇ διανοίᾳ ἔλαβον τὸ εἶδος τοῦ παιδός, οὗ ἦν ἡ λύρα”.

HDT.7.10, “ε”): “οὕτω δὲ καὶ στρατὸς πολλὸς ὑπὸ ὀλίγου διαφθείρεται κατὰ τοιόνδε. ἐπεάν σφι ὁ θεὸς φθονήσας φόβον ἐμβάλῃ ἢ βροντήν, δἰ ὦν ἐφθάρησαν ἀναξίως ἑωυτῶν” (a good example of general principle and particular illustration).

COM. Men.4.354.495: “τύχη τέχνην ὤρθωσεν, οὐ τέχνη τύχην”.

PIND. O. 4.4: “ξείνων δ᾽ εὖ πρασσόντων, ἔσαναν αὐτίκ̓ ἀγγελίαν ποτὶ γλυκεῖαν ἐσλοἰ”. O. 7.30-1: “αἱ δὲ φρενῶν ταραχαὶ παρέπλαγξαν καὶ σοφόν”. fr. 225: “ὁπόταν θεὸς ἀνδρὶ χάρμα πέμψῃ, πάρος μέλαιναν κραδίαν ἐστυφέλιξεν” . . .

SIMON. C. 65: “ὁ δ᾽ αὖ θάνατος κίχε καὶ τὸν φυγόμαχον”.

THEOGN. 661-6: “καὶ ἐκ κακοῦ ἐσθλὸν ἔγεντο”, | “καὶ κακὸν ἐξ ἀγαθοῦ: καί τε πενιχρὸς ἀνὴρ” | “αἶψα μάλ᾽ ἐπλούτησε: καὶ ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πέπαται”, | “ἐξαπίνης πάντ᾽ οὖν ὤλεσε νυκτὶ μιῇ”. | “καὶ σώφρων ἥμαρτε, καὶ ἄφρονι πολλάκι δόξα” | “ἕσπετο, καὶ τιμῆς καὶ κακὸς ὢν ἔλαχεν”.

SOLON, 13.8. 28. 29. 31. 38. 54. 68.

TYRT.12.20-2: “οὗτος ἀνὴρ ἀγαθὸς γίγνεται ἐν πολέμῳ:” | “αἶψα δὲ δυσμενέων ἀνδρῶν ἔτρεψε φάλαγγας” | “τρηχείας, σπουδῇ τ᾽ ἔσχεθε κῦμα μάχης”.

HES. Theog. 436: “παραγίγνεται ἠδ᾽ ὀνίνησι”, but 442-3: “ῥῃιδίως ἄγρην κυδρὴ θεὸς ὤπασε πολλήν”, | “ῥεῖα δ᾽ ἀφείλετο φαινομένην, ἐθέλουσά γε θυμῷ”. 447: “ἐξ ὀλίγων βριάει, κἀκ πολλῶν μείονα θῆκεν”. (The end of the verse is more than a metrical shift; it is a swoop.)

HOM. Il. 4.442-3: “ἥ τ᾽ ὀλίγη μὲν πρῶτα κορύσσεται, αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα” | “οὐρανῷ ἐστήριξε κάρη καὶ ἐπὶ χθονὶ βαίνει”.

[*] 256. Aorist of comparison.

Ultimately akin to the gnomic aorist is the aorist of comparison which is often used in poetry, the concrete example being more vivid and striking.

“δεῖ δὴ πάντας, ὥσπερ οἱ ἰατροί, ὅταν καρκίνον . . . ἴδωσιν, ἀπέκανσαν ἢ ὅλως ἀπέκοψαν, οὕτω τοῦτο τὸ θηρίον ὑμᾶς ἐξορίσαι κτἑ.”, DEM.25.95; As physicions, when they see a cancer, burn it off or cut it off bodily, so ought you all to landdamn this monster.

HOM. Od. 4.335-40: “ὡς δ᾽ ὁπότ᾽ ἐν ξυλόχῳ ἔλαφος κρατεροῖο λέοντος” | “νεβροὺς κοιμήσασα ϝεηγενέας γαλαθηνοὺς” | “κνημοὺς ἐξερέῃσι καὶ ἄγκεα ποιήεντα” | “βοσκομένη, ὁ δ᾽ ἔπειτα ἑὴν εἰσήλυθεν εὐνήν”, | “ἀμφοτέροισι δὲ τοῖσιν ἀεικέα πότμον ἐφῆκεν:” | “ὣς Ὀδυσεὺς κείνοισιν ἀεικέα πότμον ἐφήσει”.

Il. 3.23-28: “ὥς τε λέων ἐχάρη μεγάλῳ ἐπὶ σώματι κύρσας”, | . . . “ὣς ἐχάρη Μενέλαος Ἀλέξανδρον θεοειδῆ” | “ὀφθαλμοῖσιν ἰδών”.

[*] 257. Gnomic perfect and future.

The so-called gnomic perfect and gnomic future correspond to English uses. The gnomic future is based on expectation, the gnomic perfect on experience.

Perfect:

“πολλοὶ . . . ἤδη δοῦλοι . . . σεσώκασι δεσπότας”, PLATO, Legg. 776D-E; Many slaves ere now have saved masters.

ANDOC. [4]. 19: “ὅστις δὲ ὑπερορᾷ ταῦτα, τὴν μεγίστην φυλακὴν ἀνῄρηκε τῆς πόλεως”, Whoso overlooks this, has taken away the greatest safeguard of the state.

PLATO, Legg. 776D-E (see above).

HDT.2.6: “ὅσοι μὲν γὰρ γεωπεῖναί εἰσι ἀνθρώπων, ὀργυιῇσι μεμετρήκασι τὴν χώρην, ὅσοι δὲ ἧσσον γεωπεῖναι, σταδίοισι, κτἑ”.

AR. Vesp. 493-5: “ἢν μὲν ὠνῆταί τις ὀρφώς, μεμβράδας δὲ μὴ θέλῃ”, | “εὐθέως εἴρηχ᾽ ὁ πωλῶν πλησίον τὰς μεμβράδας:” | “οὗτος ὀψωνεῖν ἔοιχ᾽ ἅνθρωπος ἐπὶ τυραννίδι”. Pl. 567-9: “σκέψαι . . . τοὺς ῥήτορας, ὡς ὁπόταν μὲν” | “ὦσι πένητες, περὶ τὸν δῆμον . . . εἰσὶ δίκαιοι, πλουτήσαντες δ᾽ ἀπὸ τῶν κοινῶν παραχρῆμ᾽ ἄδικοι γεγένηνται”.

EUR. fr. 1028: “ὅστις νέος ὢν μουσῶν ἀμελεῖ”, | “τόν τε παρελθόντ᾽ ἀπόλωλε χρόνον” | “καὶ τὸν μέλλοντα τέθνηκεν”.

PIND. O. 1.54: “ἀκέρδεια λέλογχεν θαμινὰ κακαγόρους”. P. 3.54: “κέρδει καὶ σοφία δέδεται”.

THEOGN. 109-10: “ἄπληστον γὰρ ἔχουσι κακοὶ νόον: ἢν δ᾽ ἓν ἁμάρτῃς”, | “τῶν πρόσθεν πάντων ἐκκέχυται φιλότης”.

SOLON, 13.27-8: “αἰεὶ δ᾽ οὔ ἑ λέληθε διαμπερές, ὅστις ἀλιτρὸν” | “θυμὸν ἔχῃ, πάντως δ᾽ ἐς τέλος ἐξεφάνη”.

TYRT.11.14: “τρεσσάντων δ᾽ ἀνδρῶν πᾶς᾿ ἀπόλωλ̓ ἀρετή”.

HOM. Il. 5.531-2: “αἰδομένων δ᾽ ἀνδρῶν πλέονες σόοι ἠὲ πέφανται:” | “φευγόντων δ᾽ οὔτ᾽ ἂρ κλέος ὄρνυται οὔτε τις ἀλκή”. 15.139-40: “ἤδη γάρ τις τοῦ γε βίην καὶ χεῖρας ἀμείνων” | “ἢ πέφατ᾽ ἢ καὶ ἔπειτα πεφήσεται”.

[*] 258. Future:

“οὐδὲ ἄλλου οὐδενὸς ἐμψύχου κεφαλῆς γεύσεται Αἰγυπτίων οὐδείς”, HDT.2.39: No Egyptian (none of the E.) tastes (will taste) of the head of this or any other animal.

HDT.1.173: “εἰρομένου δὲ ἑτέρου τὸν πλησίον τίς εἴη, καταλέξει ἑωυτὸν μητρόθεν”. 2.5: “κατεὶς καταπειρητηρίην πηλόν τε ἀνοίσεις καὶ ἐν ἕνδεκα ὀργυιῇσι ἔσεαι” (Traveller's Future). 2.39 (see above). 41: “τῶν εἵνεκα οὔτε ἀνὴρ Αἰγύπτιος οὔτε γυνὴ ἄνδρα Ἕλληνα φιλήσειε ἂν τῷ στόματι, οὐδὲ μαχαίρῃ ἀνδρὸς Ἕλληνος χρήσεται . . . οὐδὲ κρέως καθαροῦ βοὸς διατετμημένου Ἑλληνικῇ μαχαίρῃ γεύσεται” (fut. parallel with opt. and “ἄν”).

SOLON, 13.55-6: “τὰ δὲ μόρσιμα πάντως” | “οὔτε τις οἰωνὸς ῥύσεται οὔθ᾽ ἱερά”.

[*] 259. Empirical aorist.

But when the aorist has a temporal adverb or a negative or a numeral with it, it is best referred to the same class with the English perfect of experience (empirical aorist).

“πολλάκις . . . δεσπόται ὀργιζόμενοι μείζω κακὰ ἔπαθον ἢ ἐποίησαν,” XEN. Hell. 5.3.7 : Often have masters suffered from anger greater evils than they have inflicted.

LYCURG.79: “τοὺς μὲν γὰρ ἀνθρώπους πολλοὶ ἤδη ἐξαπατήσαντες καὶ διαλαθόντες οὐ μόνον τῶν παρόντων κινδύνων ἀπελύθησαν ἀλλὰ κτἑ”.

PLATO, Phaedr. 234B: “τοὺς μὲν ἐρῶντας οἱ φίλοι νουθετοῦσιν . . . τοῖς δὲ μὴ ἐρῶσιν οὐδεὶς πώποτε τῶν οἰκείων ἐμέμψατο”.

XEN. Hell. 5.3.7 (see above). Oec. 5.18: “καὶ πρόβατα δ᾽ ἐνίοτε κάλλιστα τεθραμμένα νόσος ἐλθοῦσα κάκιστα ἀπώλεσεν”. Cf. [R. A.] 2.20: “ὅστις δὲ μὴ ὢν τοῦ δήμου εἵλετο ἐν δημοκρατουμένῃ πόλει οἰκεῖν μᾶλλον ἢ ἐν ὀλιγαρχουμένῃ, ἀδικεῖν παρεσκ ευάσατο καὶ ἔγνω ὅτι κτἑ”.

HDT.2.68: “γλῶσσαν δὲ μοῦνον θηρίων οὐκ ἔφυσε”. 3.53: “πολλοὶ δὲ ἤδη τὰ μητρώια διζήμενοι τὰ πατρώια ἀπέβαλον”.

COM. Men. 4.346.205: “ἡ γλῶσσα πολλοὺς εἰς ὄλεθρον ἤγαγεν”.

EUR. fr. 360.28-9: “τὰ μητέρων δὲ δάκρὐ ὅταν πέμπῃ τέκνα”, | “πολλοὺς ἐθήλυν᾽ εἰς μάχην ὁρμωμένους”.

PIND. O. 1.31-3: “χάρις δ᾽, ἅπερ ἅπαντα τεύχει τὰ μείλιχα θνατοῖς”, | . . . “καὶ ἄπιστον ἐμήσατο πιστὸν” | “ἔμμεναι τὸ πολλάκις”. N. 11.39-41: “ἐν σχερῷ δ᾽ οὔτ᾽ ὦν μέλαιναι καρπὸν ἔδωκαν ἄρουραι”, | “δένδρεά τ᾽ οὐκ ἐθέλει πάσαις ἐτέων περόδοις” | “ἄνθος εὐῶδες φέρειν”.

THEOGN. 137-8: “πολλάκι γὰρ δοκέων θήσειν κακόν, ἐσθλὸν ἔθηκεν:” | “καί τε δοκῶν θήσειν ἐσθλόν, ἔθηκε κακόν”. 605: “πολλῷ τοι πλέονας λιμοῦ κόρος ὤλεσεν ἤδη”. 639-640: “πολλάκι παρ δόξαν τε καὶ ἐλπίδα γίνεται εὖ ῥεῖν” | “ἔργ᾽ ἀνδρῶν, βουλαῖς δ᾽ οὐκ ἐπέγεντο τέλος”.

HES. O. et D. 240-247: “πολλάκι . . . ἀπηύρα, . . . ἐπήγαγε . . . ἀποφθινύθουσι . . . τίκτουσιν, μινύθουσι . . . ἀπώλεσεν . . . ἀποαίνυται”.

HOM. Il. 2.117-8: “ὃς δὴ πολλάων πολίων κατέλυσε κάρηνα” | “ἠδ᾽ ἔτι καὶ λύσει”. (This example is very instructive as to the conception of the empirical aorist.)

[*] 260. Aorist in general descriptions.

From this gnomic use of the aorist arises its use in general descriptions, in which the aorist is designedly employed to express concentrated action.

“αἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀθάνατοι καλούμεναι” (sc. “ψυχαί”), “ἡνίκ᾽ ἂν πρὸς ἄκρῳ γένωνται, . . . ἔστησαν”, PLATO, Phaedr. 247B-C; The souls called immortal, when they get in front of the top, stop (short).

DEM. [35]DEM., 1-2: “οὗτοι γὰρ δεινότατοι μέν εἰσι δανείσασθαι χρήματ᾽ ἐν τῷ ἐμπορίῳ, ἐπειδὰν δὲ λάβωσι . . ., εὐθὺς ἐπελάθοντο . . . ἀλλ̓ ἀντὶ τοῦ ἀποδοῦναι σοφίσματα εὑρίσκουσι . . . καὶ εἰσὶ πονηρότατοι ἀνθρώπων”.

PLATO , Phaedr. 245-56. Often in this celebrated description, e.g. 247 B-C (see above).

HDT.2.47: “ἤν τις ψαύσῃ αὐτῶν” (sc. “Αἰγυπτίων”) “παριὼν ὑός, αὐτοῖσι τοῖσι ἱματίοισι ἀπ᾽ ὦν ἔβαψε ἑωυτὸν βὰς ἐπὶ τὸν ποταμόν”. 87: “ἐπεὰν τοὺς κλυστῆρας πλήσωνται τοῦ ἀπὸ κέδρου ἀλείφατος γινομένου, ἐν ὦν ἔπλησαν ¹⁵ τοῦ νεκροῦ τὴν κοιλίην”. 3.82: “ἐς ἔχθεα μεγάλα ἀλλήλοισι ἀπικνέονται, ἐξ ὧν στάσιες ἐλλίνονται, ἐκ δὲ τῶν στασίων φόνος: ἐκ δὲ τοῦ φόνου ἀπέβη ἐς μουναρχίην”.

PIND. O. 2.63-4: “θανόντων μὲν ἐνθάδ᾽ αὐτίκ̓ ἀπάλαμνοι φρένες” | “ποινὰς ἔτισαν”.

SOLON, 13.53: “ἄλλον μάντιν ἔθηκεν ἄναξ ἑκάεργος Ἀπόλλων”.

[*] 261. Aorist in passionate questions.

In passionate and impatient questions the aorist is used of things to be despatched at once.

“τί οὐκ αὐτό γέ μοι τοῦτο ἀπεκρίνω”; PLATO, Gorg. 509E; Why don't you answer me this very point?

PLATO, Charm. 155A: “ἀλλὰ τί οὐκ ἐπέδειξάς μοι τὸν νεανίαν καλέσας δεῦρο”; Gorg. 509 E (see above). So elsewhere.

XEN. Cyr. 2.1.4: “τί οὖν . . . οὐ καὶ τὴν δύναμιν ἔλεξάς μοι”; Hiero, 1.3: “τί οὖν . . . οὐχὶ καὶ σὺ . . . ὑπέμνησάς με”;

HDT.9.48: “τί δὴ οὐ . . . ἐμαχεσάμεθα”;

AR. Vesp. 213: “τί οὐκ ἀπεκοιμήθημεν ὅσον ὅσον στίλην”; Why don't we snatch a little nap, a wee wee nap?

[*] 262. Aorist where english uses present.

In questions, the English language may also use the past tense, not so readily in such expressions as “ἐπῄνεσα”, Thank you (literally I praised); “ἐμεμψάμην”, I blame; “ἥσθην”, I am delighted (Dramatic Aorist).

“ἥσθην ἁπειλαῖς, ἐγέλασα ψολοκομπίαις”, AR. Eq. 696; I like your threats, I laugh at your fire-eating brags.

AR. Eq. 696 (see above).

EUR. Cycl. 266: “ἀπώμος᾿, ὦ κάλλιστον ὦ Κυκλώπιον”. H. F. 1235: “ἐπῄνες᾿: εὖ δράσας δέ σ᾽ οὐκ ἀναίνομαι”. Or. 1672: “καὶ λέκτρ᾽ ἐπῄνεσ᾽, ἡνίκ᾽ ἂν διδῷ πατήρ” . fr. 282.13: “ἐμεμψάμην δὲ καὶ τὸν Ἑλλήνων νόμον”.

HOM. Il. 2.323: “τίπτ᾽ ἄνεῳ ἐγένεσθε”; 14.95: “νῦν δέ σευ ὠνοσάμην πάγχυ φρένας, οἷον ἔειπες”.

[*] 263. Aorist of the future.

The aorist may be used as a vision of the future.

“ἀπωλόμην ἄῤ, εἴ με δὴ λείψεις, γύναι”, EUR. Alc. 386; I am undone, if thou shalt leave me, wife.

EUR. Alc. 386 (see above). Med. 78: “ἀπωλόμεσθ᾽ ἄῤ, εἰ κακὸν προσοίσομεν” | “νέον παλαιῷ”.

HOM. Il. 9.412-5: “εἰ μέν κ᾽ αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι”, | “ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται:” | “εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ᾽ ἵκωμαι ἐμὴν ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν”, | “ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν”.

[*] 264. Imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect side by side.

How keenly the differences of the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect might be felt, is best shown in those passages in which all three are used side by side.

“ἐγὼ μὲν ἀπεδήμουν . . . ἐτετελευτήκει δ᾽ ὁ πατὴρ πάλαι, ὅτε οὗτος ἔγημε”, DEM. [46]DEM., 21; I was abroad and my father had long been dead when this man got married.

DEM. [46]DEM., 21(see above). [56]DEM., 9: “ἐπειδὴ ὁ Σικελικὸς κατάπλους ἐγένετο καὶ αἱ τιμαὶ τοῦ σίτου ἐπ᾽ ἔλαττον ἐβάδιζον καὶ ἡ ναῦς ἡ τούτων ἀνῆκτο εἰς Αἴγυπτον, εὐθέως οὗτος ἀποστέλλει κτλ.”.

LYS.12.53: “ἐπειδὴ δὲ εἰς τὸν Πειραιᾶ ἤλθομεν καὶ αἱ ταραχαὶ γεγενημέναι ἦσαν καὶ περὶ τῶν διαλλαγῶν οἱ λόγοι ἐγίγνοντο, πολλὰς ἑκάτεροι ελπίδας εἴχομεν κτἑ” . 13.5: “διεφθάρησαν . . . ἐγεγένητο . . . ἐγίγνοντο” .

HDT.1.80: “ὡς ὤσφραντο τάχιστα τῶν καμήλων οἱ ἵπποι καὶ εἶδον αὐτάς, ὀπίσω ἀνέστρεφον, διέφθαρτό” (lay shattered) “τε τῷ Κροίσῳ ἡ ἐλπίς”. 4.125: “παραχθέντων . . . ταρασσομένων . . . τεταραγμένους”. 6.108: “ἐδεδώκεσαν . . . ἔδοσαν . . . ἐδίδοσαν”, They had given, they gave, they were for giving, offered. 7.193: “οἱ δὲ βάρβαροι, ὡς ἐπαύσατό τε ὁ ἄνεμος καὶ τὸ κῦμα ἔστρωτο, . . . ἔπλεον παρὰ τὴν ἤπειρον”, The barbarians, as the wind ceased and the waves had become calm, went sailing along the mainland.

HOM. Il. 7.464-5: “ὣς οἱ μὲν τοιαῦτα πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἀγόρευον”. | “δύσετο δ᾽ ἠέλιος, τετέλεστο δὲ ἔργον Ἀχαιῶν”.

Future Tense

[*] 265. The future denotes either continuance or attainment in the future, and is either shall or will.

“ἕξω”, I will or shall have, I will or shall get. “ἄρξω”, I will or shall be ruler, I will or shall become ruler.

LYCURG.81(Iusiur. ap.): “οὐ ποιήσομαι περὶ πλείονος τὸ ζῆν τῆς ἐλευθερίας”, I will not value life more highly than freedom.

LYS. 1.36: “οὐδεὶς αὐτῶν ἅψεται” , No one will touch them.

PLATO, Apol. 29E: “οὐκ εὐθὺς ἀφήσω αὐτὸν οὐδ᾽ ἄπειμι” (will).

THUC.1.22.4: “ἀρκούντως ἕξει”, It will (shall) suffice.

AR. Ach. 203: “ἐγὼ δὲ φεύξομαί” (will) “γε τοὺς Ἀχαρνέας”.

EUR. Bacch. 63: “συμμετασχήσω ῾ωιλλ̓ χορῶν” . fr. 176: “τίς γὰρ πετραῖον σκόπελον οὐτάζων δορὶ” | “ὀδύναισι δώσει” (will succeed in, etc.);

PIND. O. 1.37: “σὲ δ᾽ ἀντία προτέρων φθέγξομαι” (will).

HOM. Od. 1.88: “αὐτὰρ ἐγὼν Ἰθάκηνδ᾽ ἐσελεύσομαι”.

Il. 1.29: “τὴν δ᾽ ἐγὼ οὐ λύσω”.

[*] 266. Owing to this indefiniteness of the future in regard to continuance and attainment, the Greek language has a tendency to use other forms of greater temporal exactness, such as the optative with “ἄν” and “ἄν” with the subjunctive. The Greek is very rich in expressions for the future.

[*] 267. Modal nature of the future.

The future was originally a mood, and this original modal force is regularly retained in dependent clauses, with the exception of the identifying relative, where it serves to describe a definite person or thing. In the principal clauses, this modal force is more or less effaced, just as the force of the English auxiliaries will and shall is more or less effaced according to the person employed. At the same time, it must be remembered that whenever we translate the Greek future by shall or will, we make an analysis for which the Greek language is not responsible. The periphrasis that comes nearest to the modal future is “μέλλω” with the infinitive.

As the modal use of the future in dependent clauses is not treated in the following sections, a few illustrative examples are here given.

“παῖδες δέ μοι οὔπω εἰσὶν οἵ με θεραπεύσουσι,” LYS. 24.6 ; And I have as yet no children who shall nurse me (= to nurse me). “οὐδὲ” (sc. “πρέπει”) “τοιαῦτα λέγειν ἐξ ὧν ὁ βίος μηδὲν ἐπιδώσει”, ISOC.4.189. “δεήσει δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων βοσκημάτων παμπόλλων, εἴ τις αὐτὰ ἔδεται” (is to eat them), PLATO, Rpb. 373C. “καὶ μὴν ἀνδρεῖόν γε” (sc. “δεῖ ἑκάτερον εἶναι”), “εἴπερ εὖ μαχεῖται” (is to be a good fighter), Ibid. 375 A. (Here “εἴπερ . . . μαχεῖται” is parallel with “ἐὰν δέῃ . . . διαμάχεσθαι” just preceding.)

On the Gnomic Future, see 257-8.

For examples of the Future in the Apodosis of an Ideal Condition, see Ideal Conditional Sentences.

[*] 268. Future in deliberative questions.

The future indicative, like the subjunctive, may be used in questions which expect an imperative answer.

“εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν; ἢ τί δράσομεν”; EUR. Ion, 758; Shall we speak out or hold our peace? What shall we do?

DEM.4.44: “ποῖ δὴ προσορμιούμεθ”（“α”); 8.37: “τί ἐροῦμεν ἢ τί φήσομεν, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι; ἐγὼ μὲν γὰρ οὐχ ὁρῶ”.

PLATO, Protag. 331A: “τί οὖν, ὦ Πρωταγόρα, ἀποκρινούμεθα αὐτῷ”; Ibid. B: “τί αὐτῷ ἀποκρινούμεθα”;

AR. Ach. 312: “εἶτ᾽ ἐγώ σου φείσομαι”;

EUR. Ion, 758 (see above).

PIND. O. 2.2: “τίνα θεόν, τίν᾽ ἥρωα, τίνα δ᾽ ἄνδρα κελαδήσομεν”; (See B. L. G. ad loc.）

HOM. Il. 1.123: “πῶς γάρ τοι δώσουσι γέρας μεγάθυμοι Ἀχαιοί”;

[*] 269. Imperative use of the future.

The future is sometimes used where an imperative might be expected. It is not a milder or gentler imperative.¹⁶ A prediction may imply resistless power or cold indifference, compulsion or concession.

“αὐτὸς γνώσει”, PLATO, Gorg. 505C; That is a matter for you to determine. “ὁ . . . ἄγγελος . . . ἐλθὼν ἐκεῖσε ὧδε λέξει”, XEN. Cyr. 3.2.29; The messenger will go thither and hold the following discourse.

ISAE. 2.37: “ἀναγνώσεται”. (The speaker before court uses of the clerk “ἀνάγνωθι, ἀναγίγνωσκε, ἀναγνώσεται”, rarely “ἀναγνώτω”.¹⁷) 4.30: “τοῦτον . . . ἄλλος, ἐάν τις βούληται, τιμωρήσεται”, Him another shall punish if he will.

PLATO, Gorg. 505C: “αὐτὸς γνώσει” (Schol.: “ἀντὶ τοῦ εἴ τι θέλεις, ποίει: ἐμοὶ γὰρ οὐ μέλει”). Phileb. 12 A: “σὺ δέ, Πρώταρχε, αὐτὸς γνώσει”. Rpb. 432 C: “καὶ ἐμοὶ φράσεις” (so the best MS), And you will report to me. Theaet. 143 B: “ὁ παῖς ἀναγνώσεται” (of a servant), but Phaedr. 262 D: “ἀνάγνωθι” (to a friend).

XEN. An. 1.3.5: “καὶ οὔποτε ἐρεῖ οὐδείς”, And no one shall ever say. Cyr. 3.2.29 (see above). 3.3.3: “ὑμεῖς ἐμὲ οὐ ποιήσετε μισθοῦ περιιόντα εὐεργετει̂ͅν, ἀλλὰ σύ, ὦ γύναι, ἔχουσα ταῦτα τὰ χρήματα ἃ φέρεις ἄπιθι, κτἑ.”, You are not to make of me a paid travelling philanthropist, etc.

AR. Nub. 1352: “πάντως δὲ τοῦτο δράσεις” .

EUR. Med. 1320: “λέγ᾽ εἴ τι βούλει, χειρὶ δ᾽ οὐ ψαύσεις ποτέ” .

ION, Eleg. 2.7-10 (Bgk.4): “πίνωμεν, παίζωμεν: ἴτω . . . ὀρχείσθω . . . ἄρχε . . . κεῖνος . . . πίεται” (Meineke “πιέτω”).

SOPH. Ph. 843: “τάδε μεν θεὸς ὄψεται”.

HOM. Od. 1.123-4: “αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα” | “δείπνου πασσάμενος μυθήσεαι, ὅττεό σε χρή”.

This “jussive” use of the future is denied for Homer by Paech.¹⁸ In many of the passages once cited, the so-called future has been shown to be an aorist imperative and others have been explained away.

[*] 270. mh/ and the future indicative in prohibitions.

The use of the future as an imperative with “μή” is rare and hardly sure. In Attic prose it rests on just two passages, both suspicious, both open to emendation, LYS.29.13 and DEM.23.117, on which see A. J. P. xv (1894), 117f. In XEN. Hell. 2.1.22: “προεῖπεν ὡς μηδεὶς κινήσοιτο, ὡς” = “ὅπως”, and the oratio recta was “ὅπως μηδεὶς κινήσεται”. In AR. Pl. 488, “μαλακόν τ᾽ ἐνδώσετε μηδέν” belongs to the relative complex “ᾧ νικήσετε τηνδί”. In SOPH. Ai. 572-3, “ὅπως” precedes. In HOM. Il. 10.238, “ὀπάσσεαι” is subjunctive, and in Il. 13.47, “σαώσετε” is imperative. The jussive future has “οὐ”.

On “οὐ μή” with the Future, see Negatives.

[*] 271. ou) with future indicative in questions as imperative.

In questions, the future indicative with “οὐ” is often used as an imperative.

“οὐκ ἀποκτενεῖτ”（“ε”) . . . “τὸν μιαρὸν τοῦτον ἄνθρωπον”; DIN.1.18; Will you not kill this foul creature?

DIN.1.18(see above).

DEM.4.44: “οὐκ ἐμβησόμεθ”（“α”); 21.116: ““οὐκ ἀποκτενεῖτε; οὐκ ἐπὶ τὴν οἰκίαν βαδιεῖσθε; οὐχὶ συλλήψεσθε”;”

PLATO, Conv. 212D: “παῖδες, . . . οὐ σκέψεσθε”; Boys, will you not see who it is?

AR. Lys. 459-60: “οὐχ ἕλξετ᾽, οὐ παιήσετ᾽, οὐκ ἀρήξετε”; | “οὐ λοιδορήσετ᾽, οὐκ ἀναισχυντήσετε”;

EUR. Ion, 162-3: “οὐκ ἄλλᾳ” | “φοινικοφαῆ πόδα κινήσεις”;

AESCHYL. P.V. 52: “οὔκουν ἐπείξῃ τῷδε δεσμὰ περιβαλεῖν”;

On “οὐ μή” with the Future Indicative in questions, see Negatives.

[*] 272. Periphrastic future with me/llw,

In very common use is the periphrastic future with “μέλλω”, I am thinking (compare the use of penser in French), I expect, I am about, I am (destined) to. As a verb of thinking, “μέλλω” takes the typical future, but also the present, seldom the aorist and then to make a special point. Whatever difference there may have originally been between the present and the future, has been abraded. Sometimes there seems to be a conscious interval with the future, but the distinction vanishes and authors vary.

The imperfect of the “μέλλω”-periphrastic may be called the future of the past, and it plays an important part in a large class of sentences.

[*] 273. me/llw with the Future Infinitive:

“μέλλετε τὴν ψῆφον οἴσειν”, ANDOC.1.2; You are about to cast your vote.

ISAE. 7.30: “πάντες γὰρ οἱ τελευτήσειν μέλλοντες πρόνοιαν ποιοῦνται σφῶν αὐτῶν”.

LYS.3.32(215). 34 (215). 13.37 (215). 19.38: “ὃ μὴ γένοιτο, εἰ μή τι μέλλει μέγα ἀγαθὸν ἔσεσθαι τῇ πόλει” .

ANDOC.1.2(see above). Ibid. 21: “ὅπου [ἂν] ἔμελλεν αὐτὸς σωθήσεσθαι ἑμέ τε οὐκ ἀπολεῖν”.

ANTIPHON, 6.36: “ῥᾳδίως ἔμελλον ἀποφεύξεσθαι καὶ δίκην οὐ δώσειν”.

PLATO, Apol. 21B: “μέλλω . . . ὑμᾶς διδάξειν”. Crat. 418 B (215). Phaedr. 228 C (215).

XEN. Cyr. 3.1.1 (215).

THUC.1.130.1(215). 3.115.5 (215).

HDT.2.43(215). 7.8, “β”): “μέλλω ζεύξας τὸν Ἑλλήσποντον ἐλᾶν στρατὸν . . . ἐπὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα”.

AR. Thesm. 181: “μέλλουσί μ᾽ αἱ γυναῖκες ἀπολεῖν τήμερον”. Eccl. 597 (215).

SOPH. El. 379-80: “μέλλουσι γάρ ς᾿, εἰ τῶνδε μὴ λήξεις γόων”, | “ἐνταῦθα πέμψειν ἔνθα κτἑ”. O. R. 967 (215).

HES. Theog. 468-9: “ἔμελλε . . . τέξεσθαι” (215).

HOM. Od. 6.135-6: “Ὀδυσεὺς κούρῃσιν . . . ἔμελλεν” | “μίξεσθαι γυμνός περ ἐών”. 7.270 (215).

Il. 6.52-3 (215). 515-6: “ἔμελλεν στρέψεσθ᾽ ἐκ χώρης” .

[*] 274. me/llw with the Present Infinitive:

“οὖτος, τί δράσεις; τῷ πτίλῳ μέλλεις ἐμεῖν”; AR. Ach. 587; Ho! fellow! What are you going to do? Are you going to give yourself a vomit with the feather? (Here the future and the periphrasis are parallel.)

LYS.13.88: “μέλλειν λέγειν” . 19.23: “μέλλοντα πλεῖν” , On the point of sailing. 24.15: “μέλλων ἀληθῆ λέγειν” .

ANTIPHON, 1.15: “ἀδικεῖσθαι ἔμελλεν”. Ibid. 16: “εἰς Νάξον πλεῖν ἔμελλεν”.

PLATO , Phaedo 59 A: “αὐτίκα . . . ἔμελλε τελευτᾶν”. Phaedr. 242 B: “ἔμελλον . . . τὸν ποταμὸν διαβαίνειν”.

XEN. An. 1.8.1 (215).

AR. Ach. 493: “ἅπασι μέλλεις εἷς λέγειν τἀναντία” (the future is not favored by the iambic metre). Eq. 267 (215).

EUR. fr. 459: “κέρδη τοιαῦτα χρή τινα κτᾶσθαι βροτῶν”, | “ἐφ᾽ οἷσι μέλλει μήποθ̓ ὕστερον στένειν”.

SOPH. Tr. 756-7: “μέλλοντι δ᾽ αὐτῷ . . . τεύχειν σφαγὰς” | “κῆρυξ . . . ἵκετ”（“ο”).

PIND. O. 8.63-4: “ἄνδρα . . . μέλλοντα ποθεινοτάταν δόξαν φέρειν” (in prose “τὸν . . . οἴσοντα”).

HOM. Od. 9.475-6 (215).

Il. 10.454-5: “ὁ μέν μιν ἔμελλε . . . λίσσεσθαι”.

[*] 275. me/llw with the Present and the Future Infinitive:

DEM.21.55: “ἐστεφανώμεθα, ὁμοίως ὅ τε μέλλων νικᾶν καὶ ὁ πάντων ὕστατος γενήσεσθαι”.

PLATO, Conv. 198B: “πῶς . . . οὐ μέλλω ἀπορεῖν . . . μέλλων λέξειν”; Politic. 295 C: “ἰατρὸν μέλλοντα . . . ἀποδημεῖν” (on the point of going abroad) “καὶ ἀπέσεσθαι τῶν θεραπευομένων συχνὸν . . . χρόνον” (and expecting to be absent from his patients a long time).

[*] 276. me/llw with the Aorist Infinitive:

“τοῦτο τοίνυν . . . ἡμῖν ποιητέον, εἰ μὴ μέλλομεν ἐπὶ τῷ τέλει καταισχῦναι τὸν λόγον”, PLATO, Politic. 268D: This is what we must do, if we are not to bring dishonor on our discussion at the (very) last.

ANTIPHON, 1.14: “ἐπὶ πορνεῖον ἔμελλε καταστῆσαι” (once out of 20 times).

PLATO, Politic. 268D (see above). Ibid. 291 C: “εἰ μέλλομεν ἰδεῖν ἐναργῶς τὸ ζητούμενον”.

EUR. Ion, 760: “εἰρήσεταί τοι κεἰ θανεῖν μέλλω διπλῇ” (282).

“ εἰ μήτ᾽ ἐκεῖνος ἀναλαβεῖν ἔμελλε φῶς
ἐγὠ θ᾽ ὁ τλήμων τοιάδ᾽ ἐμπλήσειν κακά
”
Or. 292-3:

(aorist and future side by side).

AESCHYL. P.V. 625: “ὅπερ μέλλω παθεῖν”.

PIND. O. 7.61: “μέλλεν θέμεν” (215). 8.32: “μέλλοντες . . . τεῦξαι”. P. 9.52-3: “μέλλεις . . . ἐνεῖκαι”.

HES. Theog. 478: “ἤμελλε τεκέσθαι”, but ibid. 468-9: “ἔμελλε . . . τέξεσθαι”.

HOM. Il. 23.773: “ἔμελλον ἐπαΐξασθαι”. (So La Roche with the better MSS. Cauer reads “ἐπαΐξεσθαι”.)

[*] 277. me/llw, I postpone.

“μέλλω”, I postpone, takes regularly the present infinitive (resistance to pressure), rarely the aorist infinitive.

Present Infinitive:

“ἔτι μέλλομεν ἀμύνεσθαι”, THUC.6.10. 5; We are still delaying to punish.

THUC.1.86.2: “τοὺς ξυμμάχους . . . οὐ περιοψόμεθα ἀδικουμένους οὐδὲ μελλήσομεν τιμωρεῖν”. 1.124.1 (278). 6.10.5 (see above).

EUR. Phoen. 299 (see 278).

SOPH. O. C. 1627-8: “τί μέλλομεν χωρεῖν;” , Why delay we to go?

[*] 278. With the aorist infinitive:

“μὴ μέλλετε Ποτειδαιάταις τε πολεῖσθαι τιμωρίαν . . . καὶ τῶν ἄλλων μετελθεῖν τὴν ἐλευθερίαν” (present and aorist), THUC.1.124.1.

THUC.1.124.1(see above).

EUR. Phoen. 299-300: “τί μέλλεις ὑπώροφα μέλαθρα περᾶν”, | “θιγεῖν τ᾽ ὠλέναις τέκνου” (present and aorist); [Rhes.] 673-4: “τί μέλλετε” | “σκηπτοῦ ᾿πιόντος πολεμίων σῶσαι βίον”; (So the MSS, but Nauck follows Elmsley in reading “σῴζειν”.)

Future Perfect Tense

[*] 279. The future perfect is the perfect transferred to the future.

[*] 280. Future perfect active.

The future perfect active is found chiefly in the periphrastic form, where it has the full perfect force. The simple form is found only in a few verbs in which the perfect is used as a present: “τεθνήξω”, I shall be dead; “ἑστήξω”, I shall stand.

“ἂν ταῦτ᾽ εἰδῶμεν, καὶ τὰ δέοντ᾽ ἐσόμεθ᾽ ἐγνωκότες καὶ λόγων ματαίων ἀπηλλαγμένοι,” DEM.4.50. “πῶς οὖν εὔοπκα ἀντομωμοκὼς ἔσται φάσκων εὖ εἰδέναι;” ANTIPHON, 1.8 . “ἆρ᾽ οὖν τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον μεμαθηκυῖα ἔσται ἡ ψυχὴ αὐτοῦ;” PLATO , Meno, 86 A (future ascertainment). “τεθνήξεις,” AR. Vesp. 654 ; You will be a dead man. “ἑστήξω παρ᾽ αὐτόν,” Lys. 634 ; I will stand by his side.

[*] 281. Future perfect middle used passively.

Of more frequent use is the future perfect middle, which is chiefly used passively. The dramatists incline to the tense on account of its impatience of anything except entire fulfilment. Neither suddenness nor certainty lies in the form.

“μαστιγώσεται, στρεβλώσεται, δεδήσεται”, PLATO, Rpb. 361E; He shall be scourged, tortured, kept in prison (“δεθήσεται”, shall be put in prison).

DEM.14.2: “πᾶς ὁ παρὼν φόβος λελύσεται” , All the present fear will be finally dispelled. 19.74: “ταῦτα πεπράξεσθαι ῾σξ. “ἔφη”） δυοῖν ἢ τριῶν ἡμερῶν” .

ANTIPHON, 5.75: “ὅμως δ᾽ οὖν κεκινδυνεύσεται”.

PLATO, Rpb. 361E (see above). Theaet. 180 A: “κἂν τούτου ζητῇς λόγον λαβεῖν, τί εἴρηκεν, ἑτέρῳ πεπλήξει καινῶς μετωνομασμένῳ”.

THUC.3.39.8: “ἡμῖν δὲ . . . ἀποκεκινδυνεύσεται τά τε χρήματα καὶ αἱ ψυχαί”.

HDT.6.9: “οὐδέ σφι οὔτε τὰ ἱρὰ οὔτε τὰ ἴδια ἐμπεπρήσεται”.

AR. Eq. 1370-1: “οὐδεὶς κατὰ σπουδὰς μετεγγραφήσεται”, | “ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ ἦν τὸ πρῶτον ἐγγεγράψεται” (will stay enrolled). Pax, 246: “ὡς ἐπιτετρίψεσθ᾽ αὐτίκα”.

EUR. Bacch. 1313: “νῦν δ᾽ ἐκ δόμων ἄτιμος ἐκβεβλήσομαι” . Hippol.894: “δυοῖν δὲ μοίραιν θατέρᾳ πεπλήξεται”.

“ βεβλήσεταί τις θεῶν βροτησίᾳ χερί
εἰ μὴ ᾿ξαμείψει χωρὶς ὀμμάτων ἐμῶν
”
Or. 271-2:

SOPH. Ai. 577: “τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα τεύχη κοίν̓ ἐμοὶ τεθάψεται” .

“ Με. ἕν σοι φράσω: τόνδ᾽ ἐστὶν οὐχὶ θαπτέον
ΤΕΥ. ἀλλ᾽ ἀντακούσῃ τοῦτον ὡς τεθάψεται
”
Ibid. 1140-1:

.¹⁹

ANACR.77: “εὖτέ μοι λευκαὶ μελαίναις ἀναμεμίξονται τρίχες”.

HOM. Il. 1.139: “ὁ δέ κεν κεχολώσεται, ὅν κεν ἵκωμαι”, and similarly 5.421; 762; and 23.543. 21.585: “ἦ τ᾽ ἔτι πολλὰ τετεύξεται ἄλγἐ ἐπ̓ αὐτῇ”.

[*] 282. Future perfect in an imperative sense.

The future perfect, like the future, may be used in a quasi-imperative sense.

“τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα τεύχη κοίν᾽ ἐμοὶ τεθάψεται,” SOPH. Ai. 577 ; My other arms shall in a common tomb with me lie buried (281).

DIN.1.10: “εἰρήσεται γὰρ ἃ γιγνώσκω”, I must say what I think.

DEM. [44]DEM., 4: “εἰρήσεται γάρ”, It shall be said (the truth must out).

ISOC.7.76: “εἰρήσεται γὰρ τἀληθές”, and similarly 12.225; 15.177 and ibid. 243.

ANDOC.1.72: “ἀλλὰ γὰρ τἀληθῆ εἰρήσεται”.

PLATO, Rpb. 457B: “κάλλιστα γὰρ δὴ τοῦτο καὶ λέγεται καὶ λελέξεται ὅτι τὸ μὲν ὠφέλιμον καλόν, τὸ δὲ βλαβερὸν αἰσχρόν”.

EUR. I. T. 1464: “οὗ καὶ τεθάψῃ κατθανοῦσα”. Ion, 760: “εἰρήσεταί τοι κεὶ θανεῖν μέλλω διπλῇ”.

SOPH. Ai. 577 (see above). 1140-1 (see 281).

[*] 283. Future perfect used as a future.

Of course, when the perfect is predominantly present, the future perfect is a simple future and the middle may have an active meaning.

“δὲ δ᾽ ἄλλη τις γυνὴ κεκτήσεται”, EUR. Alc. 181; But thee some other woman will possess. “ἑστήξω παρ᾽ αὐτόν”, AR. Lys. 634; I will stand by his side (280).

EUR. Alc. 181 (see above).

AR. Lys. 634 (see above).

HOM. Il. 5.238: “τόνδε δ᾽ ἐγὼν ἐπιόντα δεδέξομαι ὀξέι δουρί”. 22.390: “αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ καὶ κεῖθι φίλου μεμνήσομ᾽ ἑταίρου”.

[*] 284. Periphrastic future perfect middle.

The periphrastic future perfect may be middle.

“ἐν ᾧ μέλλει ἐκεῖνος Ὄλυνθον καταστρέφεσθαι, σὺ κατεστραμμένος ἔσει Θήβας”, XEN. Hell. 5.2.27; While he is thinking about overthrowing Olynthus, you will have overthrown Thebes.

ANDOC.1.72: “πείσας δέ” (sc. “ὑμᾶς”), “ὑπὲρ τῶν ἐχθρῶν ἀπολελογημένος ἔσομαι”.

XEN. Hell. 5.2.27 (see above).

Periphrastic Tenses

[*] 285. The Greek language has ample facilities for a large number of periphrastic tenses. With its many participles and its various auxiliaries, the possible combinations are almost inexhaustible, while the existing combinations show at once the resources and the moderation of the language. Few languages capable of “ἔμελλε οὐ τὸ δεύτερον διαφυγὼν ἔσεσθαι” ( HDT.7.194), and of “ἔμελλε . . . ἔσεσθαι δεδωκώς” (PS.- DEM.52.24), would have shown such self-restraint.

[*] 286. Periphrases with the perfect participle.

Most common are the periphrases with the perfect participle, which has more of an adjectival character than the others. Theoretically these periphrases ought to emphasize the maintenance of the result.²⁰ But it must be remembered that many middle and passive verbs regularly use the periphrasis in the third person plural, and that the periphrastic form is almost the only form employed in the subjunctive and optative,²¹ so that a certain indifference is bred thereby. “ἐφθαρμένοι εἰσί” is the regular form, and not “ἐφθάραται”, which is old-fashioned ( THUC.3.13.3). “ἐκπὲφευγὼς εἴην” is the rule, not “ἐκπεφευγοίην” (SOPH. O. R. 840). “λέλοιπε” becomes in oratio obliqua “λελοιπὼς εἴη” (XEN. An. 1.2.21). Still, much depends on the position of the copula, much on the context and on the character of the verbs.

DEM.19.336: “τὴν ἄλλως ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἐπαρεῖ τὴν φωνὴν καὶ πεφωνασκηκὼς ἔσται”. [48]DEM., 16: “ἔφη εἶναι παρ᾽ ἑαυτῷ ὅσον μὴ ἦν ἀνηλωμένον”.

ISOC.12.233: “εὐθὺς . . . προειρηκὼς . . . ἦν αὐτοῖς ἐφ᾽ ἃ συνεληλυθότες ἦσαν, ἀνέγνωστο δ᾽ ὁ λόγος, ἐπῃνημένος δ᾽ ἦν κτἑ”. (236).

PLATO, Conv. 191E: “μᾶλλον πρὸς τὰς γυναῖκας τετραμμέναι εἰσί”. Euthyd. 280 C: “τέκτων εἰ παρεσκευασμένος εἴη . . . ξύλα ἱκανά, τεκταίνοιτο δὲ μή, ἔσθ᾽ ὅ τι ὠφελοῖτ᾽ ἂν ἀπὸ τῆς κτήσεως”; Legg. 814 B: “οὕτως αἰσχρῶς τὰς γυναῖκας εἶναι τεθραμμένας”. Rpb. 601 D: “πρὸς ἣν ἂν ἔκαστον ᾖ πεποιημένον ἢ πεφυκός”. PLAT. Soph. 218A: “πᾶσι κεχαρισμένος” (= adj. gratus) “ἔσει”. (Compare Gorg. 502 B: “ἐάν τι αὐτοῖς ἡδὺ . . . ᾖ καὶ κεχαρισμένον”.)

XEN. Hell. 1.1.11: “πυθόμενος δὲ ὅτι αἱ τῶν Πελοποννησίων νῆες ἐξ Ἀβύδου ἀνηγμέναι εἶεν εἰς Κύζικον . . . ἦλθεν εἰς Σηστόν”.

AR. Pl. 867-8: “πολὺ μᾶλλον ἐνίους ἐστὶν ἐξολωλεκώς”. | KAP. “καὶ τίνα δέδρακε δῆτα τοῦτ”（“ο”); But Av. 655: “ἔσεσθον ἐπτερωμένω, ἐπτερωμένω” is almost an adjective and Ran. 433: “ξένω γάρ ἐσμεν ἀρτίως ἀφιγμένω, ἐσμεν” belongs to “ξένω”.

SOPH. Ai. 740: “τί δ᾽ ἐστὶ χρείας τῆσδ᾽ ὑπεσπανισμένον” (= “ἐλλιπές”);

HOM. Od. 2.187: “τὸ δὲ καὶ τετελεσμένον ἔσται”, and so 17.229; 18.82; 19.487; Il. 1.212; 2.257; 8.401; 23.672. But Od. 5.89-90: “τελέσαι δέ με θυμὸς ἄνωγεν”, | “εἰ δύναμαι τελέσαι γε καὶ εἰ τετελεσμένον ἐστίν”, where “τετελεσμένον” = “τελεστόν” = “δυνατὸν γενέσθαι” (Paraphrastic), and so Il. 14.195-6; 18.426-7. Od. 8.454: “τὸ δέ κεν τετελεσμένον ἦεν”.

Il. 3.309: “πεπρωμένον ἐστίν”. 5.873: “αἰεί τοι ῥίγιστα θεοὶ τετληότες εἰμέν”.

[*] 287. The force of the copula “εἰμί”, however, revives under slight pressure. So under emphatic position or correlation.

“ἦσαν ἔκ τε Αἴνου βεβοηθηκότες”, THUC.4.28.4; They had actually come to their help from Aenos. “ἦν . . . οὐδὲν πεπονθώς”, XEN. An. 6.1.6.

[*] 288. Perfect participle with ei)/hn a)/n.

Especially worthy of note is the periphrasis of the perfect participle with the optative “εἴην” and “ἄν”. This periphrasis gives the opinion of the speaker as to the future ascertainment of a completed action, which action may lie either in the past or in the future of the speaker.

“οὐκ ἄτοπον . . . ἂν πεποιηκότες ὑμεῖς εἴητε, εἰ . . . τοῦτον ἀφείητ”（“ε”); DEM.19.71; Would you not proue to have done an absurd thing, if you were to acquit this fellow (future)? “τέχναι ὅσαιπερ σιδήρου δέονται . . . ἠφανισμέναι ἂν εἶεν”, PLATO, Legg. 678E; All the arts that require the use of iron must have disappeared (past).

DEM.19.71(see above). 30.10: “οὐκ ἂν διὰ τοῦτό γ᾽ εἶεν οὐκ εὐθὺς δε δωκότες”. 39.15: “εἴ τις δίκην ἐξούλης αὐτῷ λαχὼν μηδὲν ἐμοὶ φαίη πρὸς αὑτὸν εἶναι, κυρίαν δὲ ποιησάμενος ἐγγράψαι, τί μᾶλλον ἂν εἴη τοῦτον ἢ ἔμ᾽ ἐγγεγραφώς”;

ISOC.12.130: “οὐκ ἔχω τίνας ἐπαίνους εἰπὼν ἀξίους ἂν εἴην εἰρηκὼς τῆς ἐκείνων διανοίας”.

LYS.1.2: “καὶ ταῦτα οὐκ ἂν εἴη μόνον παρ᾽ ὑμῖν οὕτως ἐγνωσμένα, ἀλλ̓ ἐν ἁπάσῃ τῇ Ἑλλάσι” . 31.4: “εἰρηκὼς ἂν εἴην” , (In that case) I should prove to have spoken.

PLATO, Charm. 157C: “ἕρμαιον . . . γεγονὸς ἂν εἴη ἡ τῆς κεφαλῆς ἀσθένεια τῷ νεανίσκῳ, εἰ ἀναγκασθήσεται καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν διὰ τὴν κεφαλὴν βελτίων γενέσθαι”. Legg. 670 E. 678 E. 696 D. 753 E. 782 A. 800 A. 880 E. 892 A. 896 C. Ibid. D. 907 C: “καλῶς ἡμῖν εἰρημένον ἂν εἴη τὸ προοίμιον”, Our introduction must have been a good thing. Meno, 85 D. Phaedr. 262 D. 263 C.

XEN. Cyr. 1.2.13: “ἐπειδὰν . . . τὰ πέντε καὶ εἴκοσιν ἔτη διατελέσωσιν, εἴησαν . . . ἂν οὗτοι πλεῖόν τι γεγονότες ἢ τὰ πεντήκοντα ἔτη ἀπὸ γενεᾶς”.

EUR. Hipp. 349: “ἡμεῖς ἂν εἶμεν θατέρῳ κεχρημένοι” (306).

[*] 289. Perfect participle parallel with an adjective.

The adjectival character of the perfect participle is not infrequently shown by parallelism with the adjective.

“οὕτως ἐστὶν ἀνόητος καὶ παντάπασιν ὑμῶν καταπεφρονηκώς”, LYCURG.68.

LYCURG.68(see above).

LYS.14.2: “οὐ γὰρ μικρὰ τὰ ἁμαρτήματα . . . ἀλλ᾽ οὕτω πεπραγμένα καὶ εἰς τοσοῦτο κακίας ἀφιγμένα” .

[*] 290. Perfect participle as predicate of the participle of ei)mi/.

Even the perfect participle, however, is seldom so purely adjectival as to suffer combination with the participle of “εἰμί”.

“οὐκ εἰωθὸς ὄν”, EUR. Hec. 358.

AR. Ran. 721: “τούτοισιν οὖσιν” (where Meineke reads “τούτοισι τοῖσιν”) “οὐ κεκιβδηλευμένοις”.

EUR. Hec. 358 (see above).

[*] 291. Periphrasis with the present participle.

On the periphrasis with the present participle see 191. To the examples with the present auxiliary, add the following with other tenses.

ISAE. 3.65: “εἰ ἦν γνησία θυγάτηρ ἐκείνῳ καταλειπομένη”. Ibid. 72: “εἰ ἦν γυησία θυγάτηρ τῷ ἡμετέρῳ θείῳ καταλειπομένη”.

ISOC.5.110: “μίαν . . . πρᾶξιν . . . ἥπερ ἦν προσήκουσα μὲν καὶ πρέπουσα . . ., τὸν δὲ καιρὸν ἔχουσα μάλιστα σύμμετρον”, One action, which was suitable and becoming and admirably opportune.

LYS.1 3.39: “μεταπέμπονται εἰς τὸ δεσμωτήριον ὁ μὲν ἀδελφήν, ὁ δὲ μητέρα, ὁ δὲ γυναῖκα, ὁ δ᾽ ἥ τις ἦν ἑκάστῳ αὐτῶν προσήκουσα” .

ANTIPHON, 2 “γ” 3: “ἀρκοῦσα ἦν”. 5.18: “ἦν τοῦτο συμφέρον”.

THUC.2.67.1: “οὗ ἦν” (there lay） “στράτευμα τῶν Ἀθηναίων πολιορκοῦν” (not periphrastic). 3.2.2: “ἃ μεταπεμπόμενοι ἦσαν” (Cobet: “μεταπεπεμμένοι”).

PIND. P. 6.28-9: “ἔγεντο καὶ πρότερον Ἀντίλοχος βιατὰς” | “νόημα τοῦτο φέρων” (an upholder of this spirit).

[*] 292. Present Participle parallel with an Adjective:

“ῥᾳθυμότατοι ἔσεσθε καὶ ἥκιστα ἐπὶ τοῖς δεινοῖς ὀργιζόμενοι”, LYCURG.27; You will be most easy-going and least resentful of outrages.

LYCURG.27(see above).

DEM.3.25: “σώφρονες ἦσαν καὶ σφόδρ᾽ ἐν τῷ τῆς πολιτείας ἤθει μένοντες”. [35]DEM., 46: “βδελυρός τίς ἐστι καὶ ὑπερβάλλων ἅπαντας ἀνθρώπους τῷ πονηρὸς εἶναι”.

LYS.14.2: “οὐ γὰρ μικρὰ τὰ ἁμαρτήματα οὐδὲ συγγνώμης ἄξια, οὐδ᾽ ἐλπίδα παρέχοντα ὡς κτἑ” .

PLATO , Alc. 11.138 D: “εἰσί τινες . . . ἄφρονές τε καὶ φρόνιμοι, καὶ μαινόμενοι ἕτεροι”.

[*] 293. Periphrases with the aorist participle.

Periphrases with the aorist participle are rare. In most instances the aorist may be regarded as the short-hand of the perfect, or as a manner of characterizing adjective or quasi-substantive. Here and there, however, there seems to be an effort to evolve a more exact aoristic future.

“ἦσαν δέ τινες καὶ γενόμενοι τῷ Νικίᾳ λόγοι πρότερον”, THUC.4.54.3; Conferences had actually been held with Nikias even before. “ἔφραζον ὥς σφι θεὸς εἴη φανείς”, HDT.3.27; They set forth how a god had actually appeared to them.

DEM. [52]DEM., 9: “ὁ Λύκων τυγχάνει ὢν καὶ ἄπαις καὶ κληρονόμον οὐδένα οἴκοι καταλιπών”.²²

LYS.2. 13: “οὐκ εἰδότες ὁποῖοί τινες ἄνδρες ἔσονται γενόμενοι” (= “ἐπειδὴ ἄνδρες γένοιντο”). 20. 1: “οἱ μὲν ῾σομἐγὰρ ἐπιβουλεύσαντες ἦσαν αὐτῶν” (“ἦσαν αὐτῶν” is probably belonged to their number).

ANTIPHON, 2 “γ” 8: “οὗτος ἂν καὶ οὐδεὶς ἕτερος ἀποκτείνας αὐτὸν εἴη”, This man and no other must have been his murderer. (“ὁ ἀποκτείνας” would be more natural.) Similarly 3 “δ” 4 and 5.

PLATO, Legg. 961B-C: “τοιοῦτόν τί που λεχθὲν ἡμῖν ἦν ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν λόγοις”; (Phileb. 64 B: “ᾧ μὴ μίξωμεν ἀλήθειαν οὐκ ἄν ποτε τοῦτο ἀληθῶς γίγνοιτο οὐδ᾽ ἂν γενόμενον εἴη” is not to be counted. “οὐδ᾽ ἂν γενόμενον εἴη” = “οὐδ᾽ ἂν εἴη εἰ γένοιτο”. In like manner analyze Legg. 739 E.) Politic. 265 D: “ταῦτ᾽ ἔστω ταύτῃ λεχθέντα”. PLAT. Soph. 217C: “μὴ . . . ἀπαρνηθεὶς γένῃ”.²³

XEN. An. 7.6.36: “ἢν δὲ ποιήσητε . . . κατακανόντες” (Dindorf “κατακεκονότες”) “ἔσεσθε”. The reading “κατακανόντες” is favored by the coincidence of action.)

THUC.4.54.3(see above).

HDT.2.10: “ἔργα ἀποδεξάμενοι μεγάλα εἰσί”. 3.27 (see above). 5.69: “ἦν . . . τὸν δῆμον προσθέμενος πολλῷ κατύπερθε τῶν ἀντιστασιωτέων”, It was true that he had gained over the commons far beyond his rival. 7.206: “ἦν γὰρ κατὰ τὠυτὸ Ὀλυμπιὰς τούτοισι τοῖσι πρήγμασι συμπεσοῦσα” (= “σὐγχρονος”).

Suppl. 511: “ἐξαρκέσας ἦν Ζεὺς ὁ τιμωρούμενος”.

SOPH. Ai. 588: “μὴ προδοὺς ἡμᾶς γένῃ” (prove traitor). Ant. 1067: “νέκυν νεκρῶν ἀμοιβὸν ἀντιδοὺς ἔσει” . O. C. 816: “ἦ μὴν σὺ κἄνευ τοῦδε λυπηθεὶς ἔσει” . O. R. 89-90: “οὔτε γὰρ θρασὺς” | “οὔτ᾽ οὖν προδείσας εἰμὶ τῷ γε νῦν λόγῳ”. 970: “οὕτω δ᾽ ἂν θανὼν εἴη ᾿ξ ἐμοῦ” (parallel with the periphrastic perfect optative with “ἄν, θανών” being practically the perfect of “θνῄσκω”). Ph. 772-3: “μὴ σαυτόν θ᾽ ἅμα” | “κἄμ᾽ . . . κτείνας γένῃ” [parodied by COM. Phryn. 2.605 (= fr. 20, Gr. N.2): “ὦ φίλτατ᾽ ἀνδρῶν, μή μ᾽ ἀτιμάσας γένῃ”].

PIND. P. 2.72: “γένοι᾽ οἷος ἐσσὶ μαθών” (but see B. L. G. ad loc.).

HOM. Il. 4.210-1: “ἀλλ᾽ ὅτε δή ῤ̔ ἵκανον, ὅθι ξανθὸς Μενέλαος” | “βλήμενος ἦν” is not an example. “βλήμενος” does not go with “ἦν”.

[*] 294. Aorist participle with forms of fai/nomai.

The aorist participle with forms of “φαίνομαι” is especially worthy of note as a valuable periphrasis.

“αὐτὸς μὲν οὔτε λαβὼν οὐδὲν οὔτ᾽ ἐπιχειρήσας λαβεῖν φανήσομαι”, DEM.21.40.

Often of the future ascertainment of a past action. So 5.10: “οὐδὲν τούτων οὔτ᾽ ἐξαπατήσας οὔτε σιγήσας ἐγὼ φανήσομαι, ἀλλὰ προειπὼν ὑμῖν κτἑ”. 20.80. 21.39. 40 (see above). 22.47, and elsewhere.

ISOC.12.78: “τούτου δὲ κάλλιον στρατήγημα . . . οὐδεὶς φανήσεται πράξας”. 83: “φανήσεται ποιησάμενος”. (Cf. 41: “φανησόμεθα . . . ἀπολελοιπότες”. 138: “φανείην ἂν . . . εἰρηκώς”. 172. 209.)

LYS.25.16: “εἰς τὸν κατάλογον . . . καταλέξας οὐδένα φανήσομαι” , It will appear that I have put no one in the catalogue.

[*] 295. Periphrastic aorist participle with e)/xw.

The periphrastic aorist participle with “ἔχω” emphasizes the maintenance of the result and is therefore an equivalent of the perfect, the double nature of which is thus analyzed, “ἔχω” representing one end, the participle the other. The periphrasis seems to have originated in the transitive use of “ἔχω”, I have, hold, though others consider “ἔχω” to be intransitive and nearly equal to “εἰμί”. It is not always possible to feel the original force, and in Herodotus and the tragic poets “ἔχω” and the participle are used frankly as parallels to the perfect.²⁴

“τὸν λόγον δέ σου πάλαι θαυμάσας ἔχω”, PLATO, Phaedr. 257C; I have long been in a state of wonderment about your speech.

DEM.9.12: “καὶ μὴν καὶ Φερὰς . . . ἔχει καταλαβών”.

AESCHIN.1.15: “ἑνὶ κεφαλαίῳ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα συλλαβὼν ἔχει”.

PLATO, Gorg. 456A: “συλλαβοῦσα . . . ἔχει”. Legg. 793 Phaedr. 257 C (see above). Tim. 30 C.

THUC.1.30.1: “Κορινθίους δὲ δήσαντες εἶχον”. 1.38.6: “Ἐπίδαμνον . . . ἑλόντες βίᾳ ἔχουσι” .

HDT.1.41: “ἐγώ σε . . . ἐκάθηρα καὶ οἰκίοισι ὑποδεξάμενος ἔχω” (in contrast to the aorist). 6.12: “ἀνδρὶ Φωκαέι . . . ἐπιτρέψαντες ἡμέας αὐτοὺς ἔχομεν”. 7.9, “α”): “ἔχομεν δὲ αὐτῶν παῖδας καταστρεψάμενοι” (cf. DEM.4.6: “πάντα κατέστραπται, καὶ ἔχει”).

EUR. Ion, 735-7: “ὦ θύγατερ, ἄξἰ ἀξίων γεννητόρων” | “ἤθη φυλάσσεις κοὐ καταισχύνασ᾽ ἔχεις” | “τοὺς σοὺς παλαιοὺς ἐκγόνους αὐτόχθονας”. Phoen. 856-7.

“ νυκτὸς γὰρ ἡμᾶς τῆσδε πρᾶγος ἄσκοπον
ἔχει περάνας, εἴπερ εἴργασται τάδε
”
SOPH. Ai. 21-2:

(parallel with the perfect). 676. Ant. 22. 31-2. 180. 192-3. O. R. 577. Ph. 942-3.

PIND. N. 1.31: “οὐκ ἔραμαι πολὐν ἐν μεγάρῳ πλοῦτον κατακρύψαις ἔχειν”.

HES. O. et D. 42: “κρύψαντες γὰρ ἔχουσι θεοὶ βίον ἀνθρώποισι”.

HOM. Il. 1.356: “ἑλὼν γὰρ ἔχει γέρας” (= “εἷλε καὶ ἔχει”).

[*] 296. Periphrastic perfect participle with e)/xw.

The periphrastic perfect participle with “ἔχω” is also found.

PLATO, Theaet. 200A: “ἐπιστήμην ἄρα οἰήσεται τεθηρευκὼς ἔχειν”.

XEN. An. 1.3.14: “ὧν . . . πολλὰ χρήματα ἔχομεν ἀνηρπακότες”.

SOPH. Ph. 600: “ὅν γ᾽ εἶχον ἤδη χρόνιον ἐκβεβληκότες”.

Epistolary Tenses

[*] 297. In letters the aorist is sometimes used from the point of view of the receiver.

“Κρήνης, ᾧ ἔδωκα τὴν ἐπιστολήν, ἔστι . . . καὶ σοὶ φίλος”, PLATO , [PLATO Ep.] 15; Crenes, to whom I gave (give) this letter, is a true friend to you also.

ISOC. Ep. 3.1: “ἠβουλήθην” = “βούλομαι”. Ibid. 4.1: “προειλόμην” = “προῄρημαι”.

PLATO , [Ep.] 15 (see above).

[*] 298. As there are few genuine Greek letters of the classical period, we have not the material to determine whether there was ever such an extensive permutation of tenses as we find in Cicero's letters. The aorist in the N. T. is clearly due to Roman influence, and is not to be cited.

1 See W. Alexander J. in A. J. P. iv (1883), 291-308, and B. L. G. in J. H. U. Circ. 1882-3, p. 67.

2 On the conception of the ancients, see Ps.- “ λονγ.περὶ ὕψους”, Gr. I, p. 275 ( Sp.). Some statistics are given A. J. P. xiv, 106, and xvi, 259.

3 See B. L. G., A. J. P. iv (1883), 158-65; C. W. E. Miller, A. J. P. xvi (1895), 139-185.

4 See also B. L. G., A. J. P. xiv (1893), 104-6.

5 See B. L. G. on PIND. P. 4.114.

6 Pliny, H. N., Praef. 26, explains the “artistic” “ἐποίει” as a manner of conative imperfect (Apelles faciebat aut Polyclitus, tamquam inchoata semper arte et imperfecta), but Urlichs showed long ago (1857) that the aorist outnumbered the imperfect in the olden time, and Löwy (Inschriften gr. Bildhauer xiii) has counted 260 aorists against 87 imperfects. The imperfect does not appear in the ISS of the IV. century, and becomes more common only in the imperial time (47 imperfects to 18 aorists). “ἐποίησε” “he made,” “ἐποίει” “he was the maker.”

7 Cited by E. Abbott on p. 210 of his translation of Curtius' Erläut., in opposition to the distinction made by Curtius between ἔπειθον and ἔπεισα.

8 Rutherford, Babrius lxiii, but compare A. J. P. xvii (1896), 518 and 519.

9 On the proportion of aorist and imperfect, see B. L. G. in A. J. P. iv (1883), 163; xiv (1893), 104; xvi (1895), 259; and C. W. E. M. in A. J. P. xvi (1895), 142.

10 It should be noted that the ingressive rendering is not a proof, but only an illustration. See C. W. E. M. in A. J. P. xvi (1895), 150-1.

11 HAL., De admir. vi, 54 (R. vi, p. 1120), in quoting this passage, gives “καθέστακεν”, a characteristic variant.

12 A. J. P. iv (1883), 429, note.

13 A. J. P. iv (1883), 429, note.

14 See note on PIND. P. 8.15.

15 Notice the tmesis which heightens the effect and helps to prove the purposefulness of the aorist.

16 So Aken: “Die ruhige Behauptung kann weit stärker sein.” See Hopkins, A. J. P. xiii (1892), 37. The N. T. “σὺ δὲ ὄψει”, “See thou to that,” seems to be an idiomatic colloquial expression rather than a Hebraism. The Latin use of the future as a familiar imperative, A. J. P. xviii (1897), 121, in the same class of words, lends strength to the imperative conception, which is denied by some scholars.

17 C. W. E. Miller, A. J. P. xiii (1892), 408.

18 Joh. Paech, Ueber den Gebrauch des Indicativus Futuri als Modus iussivus bei Homer, Breslau, 1865.

19 Metri causa cannot be invoked in any of the above examples from tragedy. See A. J. P. xvii (1896), 518.

20 W. J. Alexander, A. J. P. iv (1883), 307-8.

21 M. Beyer, de perfecti apud Herodotum usu syntactico, Vratislaviae, 1868.

22 See A. J. P. xii (1891), 79.

23 A. J. P. iv (1883), 306.

24 See also Ph. Thielmann in Abhandlungen Wilhelm von Christ dargebracht von seinen Schülern, München, 1891, pp. 294-306.

Syntax of Classical Greek from Homer to Demosthenes. Basil L. Gildersleeve. New York. American Book Company. 1900.

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- Aristophanes, Birds, 655
- Aristophanes, Wasps, 654
- Demosthenes, Olynthiac 2, 9
- Demosthenes, Olynthiac 3, 22
- Demosthenes, Olynthiac 3, 25
- Demosthenes, Olynthiac 3, 6
- Demosthenes, Philippic 1
- Demosthenes, Philippic 1, 44
- Demosthenes, Philippic 1, 50
- Demosthenes, Philippic 1, 6
- Demosthenes, Philippic 1, 8
- Demosthenes, Olynthiac 1
- Demosthenes, Philippic 3
- Demosthenes, Philippic 3, 12
- Demosthenes, Philippic 3, 26
- Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 148
- Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 312
- Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 336
- Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 46
- Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 71
- Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 74
- Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 78
- Demosthenes, On the Navy, 2
- Demosthenes, On the Navy, 4
- Demosthenes, For the Megalopolitans
- Demosthenes, For the Megalopolitans, 8
- Demosthenes, On the Accession of Alexander
- Demosthenes, On the Crown, 149
- Demosthenes, On the Crown, 151
- Demosthenes, On the Crown, 289
- Demosthenes, Against Midias
- Demosthenes, Against Midias, 40
- Demosthenes, Against Midias, 55
- Demosthenes, Against Midias, 59
- Demosthenes, Against Midias, 7
- Demosthenes, Against Aristocrates, 117
- Demosthenes, Against Aristogiton 1, 95
- Demosthenes, Against Aphobus, 1
- Demosthenes, Against Nausimachus and Xenopeithes, 12
- Demosthenes, Against Boeotus 1, 6
- Demosthenes, Against Zenothemis, 17
- Demosthenes, Against Pantaenetus
- Demosthenes, Against Phaenippus
- Demosthenes, Against Stephanus 2
- Demosthenes, Against Callippus, 24
- Demosthenes, Against Nicostratus
- Demosthenes, Against Conon, 34
- Dinarchus, Against Demosthenes, 10
- Dinarchus, Against Demosthenes, 18
- Dinarchus, Against Demosthenes, 75
- Euripides, Bacchae, 1313
- Euripides, Bacchae, 63
- Euripides, Hippolytus, 894
- Euripides, Medea, 1320
- Euripides, Orestes, 1672
- Euripides, Orestes, 271
- Euripides, Orestes, 292
- Euripides, Orestes, 304
- Euripides, Orestes, 552
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.106
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.109
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.13
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.173
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.18
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.207
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.41
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.43
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.57
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.68
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.69
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.7
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.76
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.79
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.80
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.85
- Herodotus, Histories, 1.9
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.10
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.157
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.162
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.39
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.43
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.47
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.6
- Herodotus, Histories, 2.68
- Herodotus, Histories, 3.25
- Herodotus, Histories, 3.27
- Herodotus, Histories, 3.49
- Herodotus, Histories, 3.65
- Herodotus, Histories, 4.1
- Herodotus, Histories, 4.146
- Herodotus, Histories, 4.183
- Herodotus, Histories, 4.95
- Herodotus, Histories, 4.97
- Herodotus, Histories, 6.103
- Herodotus, Histories, 6.9
- Herodotus, Histories, 7.10
- Herodotus, Histories, 7.173
- Herodotus, Histories, 7.194
- Herodotus, Histories, 7.20
- Herodotus, Histories, 7.29
- Herodotus, Histories, 7.53
- Herodotus, Histories, 7.9
- Herodotus, Histories, 8.137
- Herodotus, Histories, 8.41
- Herodotus, Histories, 9.48
- Hesiod, Theogony, 468
- Homer, Iliad, 6.161
- Homer, Iliad, 6.174
- Homer, Iliad, 6.192
- Homer, Iliad, 6.217
- Homer, Iliad, 6.51
- Homer, Iliad, 6.515
- Homer, Iliad, 6.52
- Homer, Iliad, 6.61
- Isocrates, Panathenaicus, 130
- Isocrates, Panathenaicus, 233
- Isocrates, Panathenaicus, 78
- Isocrates, To Demonicus, 6
- Isocrates, Nicocles or the Cyprians, 35
- Isocrates, Areopagiticus, 51
- Isocrates, Areopagiticus, 76
- Isocrates, On the Peace, 19
- Isocrates, On the Peace, 99
- Isocrates, Panegyricus, 11
- Isocrates, Panegyricus, 17
- Isocrates, Panegyricus, 189
- Isocrates, To Philip, 110
- Isocrates, To Philip, 19
- Isocrates, To Philip, 48
- Isocrates, To Philip, 53
- Isocrates, Archidamus
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 103
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 126
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 21
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 27
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 36
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 58
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 68
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 72
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 79
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 81
- Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, 85
- Lysias, On the Property of Eraton, 5
- Lysias, On the Property of Eraton, 8
- Lysias, On the Property of Eraton, 9
- Lysias, On the Property of Aristophanes, 23
- Lysias, On the Property of Aristophanes, 38
- Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, 11
- Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, 17
- Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, 2
- Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, 23
- Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, 36
- Lysias, Against Philocrates, 13
- Lysias, Funeral Oration, 13
- Lysias, On the Olive Stump, 32
- Lysias, Accusation of Calumny, 15
- Lysias, For the Soldier, 4
- Lysias, Against Eratosthenes, 100
- Lysias, Against Eratosthenes, 3
- Lysias, Against Eratosthenes, 4
- Lysias, Against Eratosthenes, 53
- Lysias, Against Eratosthenes, 8
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 20
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 35
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 37
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 39
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 5
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 52
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 88
- Lysias, Against Agoratus, 91
- Lysias, Against Alcibiades 1, 2
- Lysias, For Polystratus, 1
- Lysias, Defence against a Charge of Taking Bribes, 2
- Lysias, Defence against a Charge of Taking Bribes, 3
- Lysias, On the Refusal of a Pension, 15
- Lysias, On the Refusal of a Pension, 6
- Lysias, On the Refusal of a Pension, 9
- Lysias, Defence against a Charge of subverting the Democracy, 16
- Lysias, Defence against a Charge of subverting the Democracy, 22
- Lysias, Against Philon, 4
- Lysias, Against Simon, 14
- Lysias, Against Simon, 32
- Lysias, Against Simon, 34
- Plato, Laws, 678e
- Plato, Laws, 720d
- Plato, Laws, 776d
- Plato, Laws, 811b
- Plato, Laws, 814b
- Plato, Laws, 867d
- Plato, Laws, 955a
- Plato, Laws, 961b
- Plato, Republic, 361e
- Plato, Republic, 373c
- Plato, Republic, 432c
- Plato, Republic, 457b
- Plato, Republic, 522a
- Plato, Republic, 587c
- Plato, Republic, 601d
- Plato, Euthyphro, 10b
- Plato, Apology, 21b
- Plato, Apology, 23e
- Plato, Apology, 29e
- Plato, Phaedo, 103d
- Plato, Phaedo, 59a
- Plato, Phaedo, 64d
- Plato, Phaedo, 73d
- Plato, Phaedo, 84d
- Plato, Cratylus, 401d
- Plato, Cratylus, 402a
- Plato, Cratylus, 418b
- Plato, Cratylus, 440c
- Plato, Sophist, 217c
- Plato, Sophist, 218a
- Plato, Sophist, 242c
- Plato, Theaetetus, 142b
- Plato, Theaetetus, 142c
- Plato, Theaetetus, 143a
- Plato, Theaetetus, 143b
- Plato, Theaetetus, 160a
- Plato, Theaetetus, 180a
- Plato, Theaetetus, 196e
- Plato, Theaetetus, 198d
- Plato, Theaetetus, 200a
- Plato, Phaedrus, 227b
- Plato, Phaedrus, 228c
- Plato, Phaedrus, 230a
- Plato, Phaedrus, 233d
- Plato, Phaedrus, 234b
- Plato, Phaedrus, 242b
- Plato, Phaedrus, 247b
- Plato, Phaedrus, 257c
- Plato, Phaedrus, 262d
- Plato, Phaedrus, 273d
- Plato, Philebus, 11a
- Plato, Philebus, 12a
- Plato, Philebus, 64b
- Plato, Symposium, 172c
- Plato, Symposium, 174b
- Plato, Symposium, 191e
- Plato, Symposium, 198b
- Plato, Symposium, 209c
- Plato, Symposium, 212d
- Plato, Symposium, 213b
- Plato, Charmides, 155a
- Plato, Charmides, 157c
- Plato, Hipparchus, 231c
- Plato, Euthydemus, 276d
- Plato, Euthydemus, 280c
- Plato, Gorgias, 448a
- Plato, Gorgias, 456a
- Plato, Gorgias, 471b
- Plato, Gorgias, 478c
- Plato, Gorgias, 502b
- Plato, Gorgias, 503c
- Plato, Gorgias, 505c
- Plato, Gorgias, 509e
- Plato, Protagoras, 314d
- Plato, Protagoras, 319a
- Plato, Protagoras, 331a
- Plato, Protagoras, 335c
- Plato, Protagoras, 340e
- Plato, Meno, 86a
- Plato, Meno, 93a
- Plato, Critias, 111b
- Plato, Ion, 531b
- Plato, Menexenus, 242e
- Plato, Timaeus, 23b
- Plato, Timaeus, 84a
- Sophocles, Ajax, 1140
- Sophocles, Ajax, 139
- Sophocles, Ajax, 20
- Sophocles, Ajax, 21
- Sophocles, Ajax, 298
- Sophocles, Ajax, 480
- Sophocles, Ajax, 572
- Sophocles, Ajax, 577
- Sophocles, Ajax, 588
- Sophocles, Ajax, 676
- Sophocles, Ajax, 740
- Sophocles, Ajax, 925
- Sophocles, Antigone, 1067
- Sophocles, Antigone, 180
- Sophocles, Antigone, 191
- Sophocles, Antigone, 22
- Sophocles, Antigone, 31
- Sophocles, Electra, 1101
- Sophocles, Electra, 1326
- Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus, 1627
- Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus, 816
- Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus, 1045
- Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus, 577
- Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus, 967
- Sophocles, Philoctetes, 113
- Sophocles, Philoctetes, 412
- Sophocles, Philoctetes, 461
- Sophocles, Philoctetes, 600
- Sophocles, Philoctetes, 843
- Sophocles, Philoctetes, 942
- Strabo, Geography, 3.2.14
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.103.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.121.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.124.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.12.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.130.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.22.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.30.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.59.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.70.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.70.7
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.86.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.91.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.91.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.23.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.36.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.4.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.58.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.59.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.67.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 2.71.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.106.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.107.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.109.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.111.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.115.5
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.13.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.18.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.22
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.22.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.27.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.2.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.39.8
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.3.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.49.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.56.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.58.5
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.64.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.70.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.81.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 3.82.7
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.109.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.110.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.28.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.29.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.33.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.33.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.47.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.49
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.54.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.68.5
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.69.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.6.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.85.6
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.95.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.95.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.98.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 5.21.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 5.21.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 5.65.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 5.7.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 6.10.5
- Thucydides, Histories, 6.11.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 6.33.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 6.49.4
- Thucydides, Histories, 6.57.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 6.69.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 6.91.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 7.1.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 7.29.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 7.3.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 7.51.2
- Thucydides, Histories, 7.69.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 7.84.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 8.106.1
- Thucydides, Histories, 8.10.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 8.12.3
- Thucydides, Histories, 8.23.3
- Xenophon, Anabasis, 1.8.26
- Xenophon, Anabasis, 5.3.7
- Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.2.17
- Xenophon, Hellenica, 5.3.7
- Sophocles, Trachiniae, 1072
- Aristophanes, Clouds, 1311
- Aristophanes, Clouds, 1352
- Aristophanes, Clouds, 1357
- Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 1033
- Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 129
- Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 634
- Thucydides, Histories, 1.38.6
- Thucydides, Histories, 4.119.1-3
- Thucydides, Histories, 7.20.1-2

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Basil L. Gildersleeve, Syntax of Classical Greek