OLYMPIA
Greece.
A sanctuary in the W Peloponnese, 18 km inland from the Ionian Sea, at the point
where the Alpheios and Kladeos rivers meet (42 m),
just S of the foot of the hill of Kronos (122.7 m).
Throughout practically all of antiquity Olympia was under the control of Elis (q.v.). The settlement in the area
of the shrine was continuously inhabited from the Early
to the Late Helladic period (2800-1100 B.C.), as evidenced by the apsidal, rectangular, and elliptical structures of the Early and Middle Helladic periods which have been uncovered, as well as by numerous sherds,
stone implements, and figurines of the EH, MH and LH
periods. Similar buildings and small finds as well as an
extensive cemetery with chamber tombs have been found
in the area to the N (NW of the hill of Kronos), where
stands the new Museum. The first signs of the cult of
Pelops and Hippodameia at Olympia appeared as early
as the LH period, as well as the first athletic contests.
Of the tumuli of the two heroes remains were found only
of the circular peribolos of Pelops, near the Pelopion of
historical times. Recent objections to this identification
have not been persuasive. The site of the Hippodameion
remains unknown; it may have been in the S part of the
Altis (
Paus. 6.20.7; 5.15.7).
The cults of Kronos, Gaia, Eileithuia, Themis, et al.,
evidently date back to the same periods or even earlier.
Their shrines center around the S foot of the hill of
Kronos, whence come the majority of the prehistoric
finds. With the predominance of the Aitolo-Dorian tribes
of NW Greece in Elis after the Dorian invasion and the
extension of their control over Olympia, which until
then had been controlled by Pisa, the worship of Zeus
was introduced to the Sanctuary. From that time to the
beginning of the 8th c. the Sanctuary gradually developed, but its activities were limited to the area of Elis and perhaps the neighboring territories. From this period come numerous offerings: bronze and terracotta
statuettes of men and animals, chiefly bulls and horses,
as well as chariots and drivers, all of primitive workmanship. After 776 B.C. when the Games were reorganized
and established as Panhellenic (this marks the beginning
of the historical period), Olympia developed rapidly, and
the number of terracotta and bronze offerings multiplies.
The greatest number of these are statuettes of horses and
horsemen, symbols of the equestrian aristocracy which
had evidently replaced the monarchy. There are also
bronze cauldrons and tripods, and weapons of excellent workmanship. During this period the sacred grove of Olympia, the Altis, which was planted with plane trees, wild olives, poplars, oaks, and pines (
Paus. 5.7.7,
13.1-3, 27.11;
Strab. 8.353) and enclosed by a low peribolos or fence, acquired a very few, simple structures:
altars of the Gods, and the heroa of Pelops and Hippodameia. The single column that was left of Oinomaos megaron after Zeus, according to tradition, destroyed it with a lightning bolt, must also have been visible there; it
was preserved into the time of Pausanias (
5.20f). There
was also the remnant of an ancient form of tree worship
in a sacred wild olive tree which still flourished, and
which Idaian Herakles, according to the myth, had
brought from the lands of the Hyperboreians and planted
there.
To the Geometric period belong the foundations of a
rhomboid altar (?) built of unworked stones which was
found within the site of the ancient Prytaneion and
which may have been the precursor of the altar of
Hestia. To the end of the Geometric period belongs one
of the apsidal buildings, no. 4, which until recently was
considered to be prehistoric. The site of the stadium of
this period is not known; it may have been on the same
site as was the archaic one. In the Archaic period (7th
and 6th c.) the activities of the Sanctuary involved not
only the world of mainland Greece, but the colonies
around the Mediterranean. The increased importance of
Olympia brought about its decoration with the first monumental structures. At the foot of the hill of Kronos was
built the Temple of Hera. According to the usual modern view this was begun ca. 650 B.C. as a small Doric
building with only a pronaos (10 x 39.5 m) and not until
ca. 600 B.C. was it enlarged by the addition of an opisthodomos and peristyle colonnade (18.76 x 50 m; 6 x 16
columns). Recent researches have shown, however, that
the whole building was completed at one time, ca. 600.
The Heraion, narrow and of heavy proportions, is the
oldest example of a monumental temple in Greece. The
lower part and the huge orthostat blocks of the cella are
preserved and are of a local shell limestone, while the
upper parts of the walls were of mud brick and the superstructure of wood with terracotta tiles on the roof. At the peak of each gable was a round terracotta acroterion. One of these has been restored (diam. 2.42 m) but of
the other only a few fragments remain. The original
wooden columns were gradually replaced, at long intervals, by stone ones. The last wooden one, made of oak,
was preserved to the time of Pausanias, in the opisthodomos of the temple (
Paus. 5.16.1). Each of the replacement columns was in the style of its own period, so that the columns as a whole provide an example of
the development of the Doric column, particularly in respect to the capitals, from the archaic to the Roman period. At the back of the cella is preserved the bench on which rested the stone statues of Hera and Zeus
(
Paus. 5.17.1). Only the head of Hera has been found.
Along a natural terrace on the S slope of the hill of
Kronos, a little above the Heraion, the treasuries were
built in the 6th c. These are naiskoi of megaron form,
dedicated by the Greek cities, particularly by colonies.
The oldest of these, the Sikyonian treasury in its first
phase, was about contemporary with the Heraion, while
the newer ones belong to the first half of the 5th c. (the
Treasuries of Sikyon and Gela in their second phase).
Arranged one beside the other, they border the N edge
of the Altis. Pausanias (
6.19.1f) gives their names. The
remains of 15 are preserved, but two of them only as
traces—the two under the Exedra of Atticus. Five only
are certainly identified: the Treasuries of Sikyon, Selinos,
Metapontis, Megara, and Gela. Numerous architectural
fragments of the first and last have been preserved. Of
the pedimental sculptures of the Treasuries only a few
pieces remain, with the exception of the Treasury of the
Megarians of which the pedimental sculptures, although
badly mutilated, are preserved. They are carved in high
relief. The treasuries, which may at first have had a
sacred purpose, were later used to safeguard valuable
offerings (
Paus. 6.19.lf). The stepped supporting wall in
front of the treasuries was built later, in 330 B.C.
The Pelopion (
Paus. 5.13.1) was renewed in the 6th c.
Its peribolos at that time had five sides and a propylon,
which was replaced in the 5th c. by a more monumental
one. Recent theory dating the Pelopion to the 4th c. does
not seem well founded. To the late 6th c. belongs the
older Prytaneion with the seats of the Prytanei at the N
corner of the Altis. The sacred hearth with its everlasting
fire was in a special area of the same building (
Paus.
5.19.9). In the following centuries the Prytaneion was
enlarged and continually altered.
No trace of the Great Altar of Zeus SE of the Temple
of Hera is preserved (
Paus. 5.13.8). Since it was a
mound slowly built up from the ashes of sacrifices and
from the altar of the Prytaneion (
Paus. 5.13; 15.9), it
melted away in the rains after worship at the sanctuary
ceased. The area in front of the Altar and particularly
the slope of the terrace where the treasuries stood was
perhaps the Theater mentioned by Xenophon (
Hell. 7.4.
31), so called from its view of the sacrifices at the
Altar and of other rites.
The archaic stadium, which was plain and had banks
not of the usual form, stretched along the slope in front
of the treasuries. Its W end, where the starting line was,
opened out towards the Great Altar of Zeus. The stadium
of the 5th c. was on the same spot or a little to the E,
but this one had a track at a lower level and the banks,
now more nearly normal, along the long sides; it formed
part of the sacred area, since the games had a clearly
religious character. But in the mid-4th c. a new stadium
was built, which is still visible 82 m to the E and 7 m
N of its predecessor. It was outside the sanctuary, since
the games had begun to be more secular in character.
The track of the new stadium was 215.54 m long and
ca. 28.5 m wide, while the stone starting-points were
192.28 m apart as opposed to the 186 m of the Classical
stadium. The banks enclosed the track on four sides and
could hold 45,000 spectators. There were only a few
stone seats for important persons; others sat directly on
the ground. The exedra for the Hellanodikai (judges)
was of stone, and was opposite the altar of Demeter
Chamyne (
Paus. 6.20.9). In the Roman period the
exedra was given a more resplendent form and the
stadium was remodeled twice. In the Hellenistic period
the NW corner of the stadium communicated with the
sanctuary through a narrow, roofed corridor, the Krypte
(
Paus. 5.20.8), which had Corinthian columns at its W
end. To the NE of the archaic stadium was a bronze-smelting establishment, and a large number of wells to
provide water for the thousands of spectators during the
period of the games. Thousands of earlier dedications
were thrown into them in the Classical period when the
stadium was moved to the E and covered this spot.
The hippodrome, which had a length of four stadia
(ca. 780 m) has not been excavated and has probably,
at least in part, been washed away by the Alpheios river.
It was S of the stadium and parallel to it. When it took
its final form in the Classical period, Kleoitas worked
out a new arrangement of the starting gates (
Paus.
6.20. lOf). The S end of the sanctuary was closed off in
the mid-6th c. by the S building of the Bouleuterion
(14 x 30.5 m). This was a rectangular building with an
apse at one of its short ends, a continuation of the type
of prehistoric and Geometric building found in the Altis.
In the 5th c. a second apsidal room was added parallel
to the first, and between them a rectangular room where
stood the Altar of Zeus Horkios. Here the athletes made
their prescribed vows (orkoi) before the Games. These
three buildings were enlarged in the 4th c. by an Ionic
portico across the E face. The chronology and purpose
of the two structures W of the Bouleuterion are uncertain.
In the 5th c. the sanctuary reached its peak of greatness and wealth. The Truce, which had been in operation
from the archaic period on, and the recognition of Elis
as “sacred and unassailable” (Polyb. 4.73) secured the
unhampered development and prosperity of the area and
of the sanctuary. At this time the most important building,
the gigantic Temple of Zeus, was erected in the middle
of the Altis. It was begun ca. 470 B.C., immediately after
the reorganization of the state, at the same time as Elis
synoecism, and it was finished in 456. The temple, Doric
peripteral (27.68 x 64.12 m; 6 x 13 columns), was the
work of the Elian architect Libo. It is the largest temple
in the Peloponnese and was considered the finest expression and the standard of Doric temple architecture. It was
constructed of local shell limestone, covered with white
stucco. Only the roof and sima and lion-head water
spouts were made of Parian marble, although later the
frequent local earthquakes made replacements of Pentelic
marble necessary. Each of the continual repairs was in
the style of its own period. The marble pedimental groups
on the E end represented the chariot race of Oinomaos
and Pelops with Zeus in the center, and on the W end
the battle of the Lapiths and Centaurs at the marriage
of Peirithoos and Deidameia, with Apollo in the center.
The twelve metopes, six each above the entrances of the
pronaos and opisthodomos, represent the twelve labors
of Herakles. These sculptures, now more or less restored,
are the most representative examples of the severe style
of Greek art from the period after the Persian wars. The
central acroterion at each pediment was a gilded Nike,
the work of Paionios, and the corner acroteria were
gilded cauldrons. The chryselephantine statue of Zeus
seated on a throne, the work of Phidias, was placed at
the back of the cella in 430 B.C. Of this masterpiece, described in detail by Pausanias (
5.10. if) nothing remains
but some representations, chiefly on coins of Elis. The
gigantic figure (12.37 m) held in his right hand a chryselephantine Nike and in his left a scepter. The throne
and base were decorated with mythical scenes, and with
gods, demigods, and heroes made of gold, ebony, and
precious stones. For the making of this piece a workshop
(ergasterion) was put up W of the temple (
Paus. 5.15.1）
which survived, with various changes, until the late Roman period. It measured 14.57 x 32.18 m, and in and
around it were found numerous tools, glass ornaments,
clay molds and other artists' materials which definitely
belong to the period of the chryselephantine Zeus.
Two other buildings were erected at about the same
time N of the workshop. One of them, rectangular with
a peristyle court, is probably identified with the Theokoleon, the meeting place of the Theokoloi, the priests of Olympia (
Paus. 5.15.8). This was altered and enlarged to the E and S in the Hellenistic period. The
other building, W of the Theokoleon, consists of a circle inside a square and is called the Heroon in a later Hellenistic inscription found on the spot. A recent theory that this was originally a bath and was later dedicated to its anonymous Hero is not based on any sound evidence. To the W again, towards the Kladeos river, were the baths (Loutra, 5.75 x 21.56 m) and a swimming
pool (kolymbeterion, 16 x 24 m). The baths were enlarged in 300 B.C. and again in 100 B.C., when a hypocaust was put in underneath; the building was abandoned
in the Roman period when baths were built in many parts
of the sanctuary.
The later Classical period was for Elis one of internal
problems and clashes with her neighbors, especially when
the Arkadians took Olympia in 364 B.C. and with the
Pisans directed the games of that Olympiad (104th 0l.).
They withdrew in 362 B.C. and Elis again took over supervision of the sanctuary. These disturbances, however, did not prevent new building activity, which gave the sanctuary its final form and architectural organization.
For the first time the delicate Ionic order and its relative, the Corinthian, were brought into the sanctuary, which had been dominated by the Doric. In the newer buildings white marble was used to the almost complete
exclusion of the shell limestone previously employed.
These were signs of a general change in the character of
the sanctuary. When the stadium was shifted E to its
present position, the isolation of the Altis was completed
with the erection of the Stoa of the Echo (or the Seven Echo stoa) 12.50 x 98 m along its E side. The name came from the fact that an echo in it was proliferated seven times. It was also called The Painted Stoa (Poikile) from the wall paintings in it (
Paus. 5.21.17; Plin.
NH 36.100). It was built shortly after 350 B.C. and had
two colonnades: the inner one was Doric and the outer
may have been Corinthian; there were also rooms along
the back.
At this period the main sanctuary (ca. 200 x 175 m)
was separated from the supporting complex and the secular buildings by a monumental peribolos with five gates,
three on the W side and two at the S. At the beginning
of the 4th c. the Metroon, the Temple of Kybele, mother
of the gods, was built in front of the terrace on which
the treasuries stood. Of this temple, which was Doric
peripteral (10.62 x 20.67 m; 6 x 11 columns), only the
stylobate and portions of the stone epistyle are preserved,
and of the pedimental sculptures only a marble statue of
Dionysos reclining. From the time of Augustus on the
metroon was used for the worship of the Roman emperors; sculptured portraits of many of them stood in the
temple. Along the treasury terrace, between the metroon
and the stadium, are preserved the bases of 16 bronze
statues of Zeus, the Zanes. These were set up between
378 B.C. and A.D. 125 with the money paid as a fine by
athletes who had committed fouls in winning the Games
(
Paus. 5.21.2f). The S boundary of the sanctuary in its
larger sense was defined by the south stoa (80.56 m
long), which had two colonnades, the outer Doric and
the inner Corinthian, with a wall at the back. The stoa
was in the form of a T with a colonnaded extension
in its center towards the Alpheios river; it was built at the
same time as the Stoa of the Echo, and its euthynteria
and steps were similarly of marble. The recently suggested identification of this stoa with the proedria (
Paus. 5.15.4) is not based on any evidence.
At the beginning of the 4th or end of the 5th c. B.C.
the SE building was erected, which according to one
opinion is the Sanctuary of Hestia (
Xen. Hell. 7.4.31).
The W part is preserved, a row of four rooms with
Doric colonnades on their four sides (14.66 x 36.42 m).
The building was altered and expanded to the E in the
Hellenistic period. At the SE corner of the Hellenistic
addition, an early 5th c. altar of Artemis was recently
found. The SE building was destroyed in the 1st c. A.D. for the foundations of a peristyle villa, probably built for Nero.
The elegant circular peripteral building S of the Prytaneion, the Philippeion (diam. 15.24 m) was begun by Philip II after the battle of Chaironeia (338 B.C.) but finished by his son, Alexander the Great. It stood on a
marble stepped krepidoma, mostly preserved, and was
surrounded by an Ionic colonnade. Corinthian half-columns were placed at intervals around the interior of the
circular cella, at the back of which, opposite the entrance, were five portrait statues standing on a semicircular base, representing Alexander the Great between his
parents and his grandfathers. These statues were the
work of Leochares and were of gold and ivory (
Paus.
5.20.9). This type of circular building, used earlier for
divine worship, was now for the first time utilized for
worship of the hero cult of the Macedonian dynasty.
In the W part of the sanctuary, S of the Workshop of
Phidias, stood the hostelry called the Leonidaion, built
in 330 B.C., named for its donor and architect, Leonidas
of Naxos. It is 74.82 by 81.08 m and on all four sides
its rooms open inward on a peristyle court with Doric
columns. On the outside the building was surrounded by
an Ionic colonnade. Originally intended for distinguished
visitors and illustrious spectators, the building was later
used as a residence for Roman officials (
Paus. 5.15.lf).
In the Hellenistic period (3d-1st c. B.C.) there was no
new building in the middle of the main sanctuary. There
was only restoration and repair, with very few enlargements, at fairly frequent intervals, because severe earthquakes were common. Vigorous building activity however, went on outside the area of the Altis, to provide
comfortable accommodation for athletes and spectators.
To the W of the Altis, near the Kladeos, the Palaestra, was built in the 4th c., a training ground for practice in wrestling, boxing, and jumping. It was a nearly
square (66.35 x 66.75 m) building with a peristyle court,
around which were covered areas for dressing, applying
oil, sand, etc. The columns of the peristyle were Doric,
but those of the entrances to the rooms were Ionic. To
the N of the Palaestra and connected with it was the
gymnasium, an enclosed, rectangular building (120 x 220
m) with a wide court in the center and colonnades on
the four sides. The columns were Doric on the long sides
and Ionic on the short. Here the athletes trained for
contests demanding space, such as javelin throwing, discus throwing, and running. This was built in the early
2d c. B.C., while the monumental entrance between the
gymnasium and the Palaestra, in the form of an amphiprostyle Corinthian propylon, belongs rather to the late 2d c. B.C.
The sanctuary was crowded with thousands of altars
and statues of gods, demigods, and heroes, of Olympic
victors and kings and generals, the work of the most
notable sculptors of antiquity (
Paus. 5.14.4f; 21.lf;
6.1.lf). Very few statues remain, but a large number of
bases have been found. Similar statues were put up in
Roman times, but these were mostly of Roman notables
and emperors, and were erected not by their own choice
but by cities and private persons who wished to secure
their good will. By that time the best of the older works
had been moved into the Heraion, which took on the
appearance of a museum (
Paus. 5.17.lf).
In 146 B.C., the consul Mummius dedicated 21 gilded
shields after his victory over the Greeks at the Isthmus.
He fixed them on the metopes of the Temple of Zeus.
On the other hand, in 85 B.C. Sulla robbed the treasuries
of the sanctuary (as well as those of Epidaurus and
Delphi) to meet the demands made by the war against
Mithridates. Sulla decided to shift the Olympic games to
Rome and organized the 175th Olympiad (80 B.C.)
there, but Olympia recovered from this period of decline in the time of Augustus, after 31 B.C. Roman emperors and magistrates showed their interest in the sanctuary and the Games in different ways which harmonized with their political programs in Greece. Under
Nero the Altis was enlarged and surrounded by a new
peribolos, 3 m wider on the W side than the old one,
and 20 m on the S. The simple gates of the sanctuary
were replaced by monumental propylaea. At about the
same time baths were erected W of the Greek baths and
N of the Prytaneion. Later other baths were built NE
of Nero's villa, and W of the Bouleuterion. Another
hotel (xenodocheion) rose W of Phidias' Workshop, and
during this period the older buildings were maintained
or altered. Finally, in A.D. 160 Herodes Atticus built a
magnificent fountain, the Nymphaion or Exedra (width
33 m, ht. ca. 13 m). It took the form of a semicircle
with a circular naiskos at each of the two ends. The
walls were of brick faced with polychrome marble.
Above the semicircular wall and in the apsidal recesses
that made up the central facade were 20 statues of
Antoninus Pius and his family as well as the family of
Herodes Atticus. The space between the two naiskoi was
occupied by two basins, one in front of the semicircular
wall and the other on a lower platform. The water,
brought from an abundant spring 4 km W of Olympia,
ran first into the upper, semicircular basin, next into the
lower rectangular one, and then, via a network of conduits, throughout the whole sanctuary.
The first serious destruction to the monuments of the
sanctuary came with the threat of the Herulian invasion.
In the end the invasion did not reach as far as Olympia,
but a strong wall was built to protect the richer treasuries and particularly the chryselephantine statue of Zeus. This wall, which used to be thought Byzantine,
surrounded the Temple of Zeus and the S part of the
sanctuary up to the south stoa. It was built with material from other buildings, both within and without the sanctuary, which were demolished for the purpose, except for the Temple of Hera.
Even in this crippled state and although it continued
to decline, the sanctuary lasted for another century.
There were some restorations in this period, particularly
in the time of Diocletian (A.D. 285-305). The end came
in A.D. 393-394 with the decree of Theodosius I, which
prohibited worship in pagan sanctuaries. In A.D. 426 an
edict of Theodosius II caused the ruin of the monuments of the Altis, and it was completed by two violent earthquakes in 522 and 551. In the 5th and 6th c. there was a small settlement of Christians at Olympia, and
the Workshop of Phidias, the only building left whole,
was changed into a Christian basilica. The floods of the
Alpheios and Kladeos and the earth washing down from
the sandy hill of Kronos covered almost the whole of
the sanctuary to a depth of 7 m. The Kladeos also
changed its course and, washing through the sanctuary,
swept away many of the buildings in the W part. The
first discoveries of the monuments of Olympia were
made in 1829; systematic excavation began in 1875 and
has continued to the present day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Blouet,
Expédition scientifique de
Morée I (1831) 56ff
MPI; A. Bötticher, Olympia
2 (1886)
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Olympia. Die Ergebnisse 5 vols. (1890-97)
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Ausgrabungen in Olympia 8 vols., continuing (1937-)
PI;
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RE XVIII, 1 (1939) s.v. Olympia 1ff; E.
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Olympia: Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im
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263ff
MPI; I.
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PI; N. Papachatzis,
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Die Tempel der Griechen (1966) 43ff
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2 (1966)
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Griechenland Kunde5 I (1967) 265ff
MPI; E. Meyer,
Pausanias'
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MPI; id.,
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Olympia,”
Berr. der Koldway Gesellschaft 25 (1969)
13ff
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MPI.
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PI; L. Deubner,
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PI; L. Ziehen,
RE XVII, 2 (1937)
252ff s.v. Olympia; K. Meuli, “Der Ursprung der Olympischen Spiele,”
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MemLinc
ser. 8, 8, 2 (1957) 53ff; id., “Supplemente al Katalogo
degli Olympionikai,”
Klio 52 (1970) 295ff; International Olympic Academy,
Reports 12 vols. (1961-72)
I;
H. V. Herrmann, “Zur ältesten Geschichte von Olympia,”
AthMitt 77 (1962) 3ff
MPI; W. Rudolf,
Olympischer
Kampfsport in der Antike (1965)
I; N. E. Gardiner,
Athletics of the Ancient World2 (1967)
I; A. Hönle,
Olympia in der Politik der griechischen Staatswelt
(1968); J. Jüthner,
Die athletischen Leibesübungen der
Griechen (1968)
PI; H. Bengston,
Die Olympische Spiele
in der Antike (1971); H. A. Harris,
Greek Athletes and
Athletics (1972)
I.
Art: C. Seltmann,
The temple coins of Olympia
(1921)
I; E. Buschor & R. Hamann,
Die Skulpturen des
Zeustempels zu Olympia (1924)
I; id., “Die Olympiameister,”
AthMitt 51 (1926) 163ff; W. Hege & G. Rodenwaldt,
Olympia (1936)
MPI; G. Becatti,
Problemi Fidiaci (1951)
I; id., “Controversie Olympiche,”
Studi Miscellanei 18 (1971) 67ff
I; J. Liegle,
Der Zeus der Phidias (1952)
I; C. M. Kraay, Greek Coins (1966)
I; G. Richter, “The Pheidian Zeus at Olympia,”
Hesperia 35
(1966) 166ff
I; B. Ashmole & N. Yalouris,
The Sculptures of the Temple of Zeus (1967)
PI; J. Fink,
Der
Thron des Zeus in Olympia (1967)
I; E. Simon, “Zu den
Giebeln des Zeustempel von Olympia,”
AthMitt 83
(1968) 147ff
I; W. Heilmeyer, “Giessereibetriebe in
Olympia,”
JdI 84 (1969) 1ff
I; F. Eckstein,
ΑΝΑΘΗΜΑΤΑ
(1969)
PI; B. Ridgway,
The Severe Style in Greek Sculpture (1970)
I; M.-L. Säflund,
The East Pediment of the
Temple of Zeus at Olympia (1970)
PI; B. Ashmole,
Architect and Sculptor in Classical Greece (1972)
MPI.
N. YALOURIS
