Copula
εἶναι and γίγνομαι
[*] 60. When the predicate is not in the form of a verb, but in the form of an adjective or substantive or equivalent, the socalled copula is generally employed to couple the adjective or substantive with the subject. The most common forms of the copula are the verbs “εἰμί”, I am, and “γίγνομαι”, I become, turn out, prove, behave. “εἰμί”: “θάνατος ἡ ζημία ἐστί,” LYS.13.69 ; The penalty is death. “οὗτοι ἀνδρεῖοί εἰσιν”, PLATO, Lach. 195C; These are brave. So everywhere. “γίγνομαι”: “τό τ᾽ ἀσέβημα ἡμέτερον γίγνεται,” ANT. 2 a 3 ; The impiety becomes ours. LYS.1.7: “πάντων τῶν κακῶν ἀποθανοῦσα αἰτία μοι γεγένηται” . ANT. 1.4: “οὗτοι τοῦ μὲν τεθνεῶτος φονῆς γεγένηνται, ἐμοὶ δ᾽ ἀντίδικοι καθεστᾶσι” . 2 “α” 3 (see above). PLATO, Lys. 223B: “καταγέλαστοι γεγόναμεν ἐγώ τε . . . καὶ ὑμεῖς.” XEN. Ag. 10.4: “βασιλεὺς ἐγένετο” (sc. “Ἀγησίλαος”). (See 64.) THUC.3.2.3: “Τενέδιοι . . . μηνυταὶ γίγνονται” , The Tenedians turn informers. HDT.8.86: “ἦσάν γε καὶ ἐγένοντο ταύτην τὴν ἡμέρην μακρῷ ἀμείνονες αὐτοὶ ἑωυτῶν” , They were really and showed themselves that day to be far better than their wont. AR. Vesp.207: “στροῦθος ἁνὴρ γίγνεται” , The man turns to a sparrow. SOPH. O. C. 272: “οὐδ᾽ ἂν ὧδ᾽ ἐγιγνόμην κακός” . 615: “τὰ τερπνὰ πικρὰ γίγνεται καὖθις φίλα” . PIND. P. 10.22: “εὐδαίμων . . . οὗτος ἀνὴρ γίνεται ῾αππροϝες ηιμσελφ̓ σοφοῖς.” MIMN. fr. 5.4-5: “ ἀλλ᾽ ὀλιγοχρόνιον γίγνεται ὥσπερ ὄναρἥβη τιμήεσσα
”. HOM. Od. 4.361-2: “οἵ ῾σξ. “οὖροι πνείοντες”) ῥά τε νηῶν πομπῆες γίγνονται” . 708-9: “αἵ θ᾽ ἁλὸς ἵπποι ἀνδράσι γίγνονται.” [*] 61. Periphrases with gi/gnomai. Periphrases with “γίγνομαι” are especially common in elevated style. In addition to the pomp (“ὄγκος”) gained by the fuller expression, the moral character of the agent or action is brought more distinctly to the consciousness. “σωτὴρ γενοῦ μοι,” AESCH. Cho. 2 , is much more than “σῶσόν με”, “ῥυσίπολις γενοῦ,” Sept. 130 , than “ῥῦσαι τὴν πόλιν”, and “μὴ . . . ὑβριστὴς γένῃ,” SOPH. Ai. 1091-2 , than “μὴ ὑβρίσῃς”. See further the comm. on ANT. 1.2: “τιμωροὺς γενέσθαι” , and THUC. 3.2.3, and compare Periphrastic Tenses, especially 293. [*] 62. Copula as the predicate. Strictly speaking, the copula is itself a predicate, as is not unfrequently shown by the translation when it stands alone or with an adverb. “εἰ ταῦθ᾽ οὕτως ἐστίν”, Dem. [58]Dem., 16; If matters stand thus. “ἡ δ᾽ ἑτέρα ἔστιν ἔτι”, AND.1.120; The other (daughter) is still living. DEM.20.64: “τούτων δ᾽ ἴσως ἔνιοι τῶν ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτ᾽ εἰσίν. ἀλλὰ τὰ ἔργα τὰ πραχθέντ᾽ ἔστιν, ἐπειδήπερ ἅπαξ ἐπράχθη”. [58]DEM., 16(see above). LYS.1.4. Ibid. 11: “ὁ γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἔνδον ἦν” . 13.44: “ἀνάγκη δ᾽ ἐστίν” . Ibid. 83: “περὶ ὧν ἐστιν ἡ αἰτία” . 19.11: “ἣ ῾σξ. “σπάνις ἀργυρίου”) νῦν ἐστιν ῾πρεϝαιλς᾿ ἐν τῇ πόλει” . AND.1.120(see above). PLATO, Charm. 153B: “μάχη ἐγεγόνειν” (had taken place) “ἐν τῇ Ποτειδαίᾳ”. Protag. 325 B: “σκέψαι ὡς θαυμασίως γίγνονται” (act, behave) “οἱ ἀγαθοί” (see the commentators, and comp. THUC.3.10.1, below). Ibid. 335 D: “ἐὰν γὰρ σὺ ἐξέλθῃς, οὐχ ὁμοίως ἡμῖν ἔσονται οἱ διάλογοι”, If YOU go out, our discussions will not go on as well. XEN. An. 7.1.28: “ἔστι τις οὕτως ἄφρων ὅστις οἴεται;” Breathes1 there the man who is so foolish as to think? THUC.3.10.1: “εἰ μὴ μετ᾽ ἀρετῆς δοκούσης ἐς ἀλλήλους γίγνοιντο” . 4.110.2: “οὔσης τῆς πόλεως πρὸς λόφον” , The city lying uphill. 4.118.10: “αἱ δὲ σπονδαὶ ἐνιαυτὸν ἔσονται” (are to last). AR. Eq. 1027: “ἐμοὶ γάρ ἐστ᾽ ὀρθῶς περὶ τούτου τοῦ κυνός” . EUR. Alc. 1076: “οὐκ ἔστι τοὺς θανόντας εἰς φάος μολεῖν”.
. fr. 236 N2: “σὺν μυρίοισι τὰ καλὰ γίγνεται πόνοις”. SOPH. Ph. 1241: “ἔστιν τις, ἔστιν ὅς σε κωλύσει τὸ δρᾶν”. SOLON, 13.16 Bgk4: “οὐ γὰρ δὴν θνητοῖς ὕβριος ἔργα πέλει”. HOM. Od. 19.312: “ὡς ἔσεταί περ”, How things will turn out. 21.212. HOM. Il. 1.211: “ὡς ἔσεταί περ”. 1.564: “εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω τοῦτ᾽ ἐστίν”. 4.319: “ὣς ἔμεν”. 6.130-1: “οὐδὲ . . . δὴν ἦν” . 9.528: “ὡς ἦν”, How it was. 9.551: “τόφρα δὲ Κουρήτεσσι κακῶς ἦν”, fared ill. 11.762: “ὣς ἔον”. 23.643: “ὥς ποτ᾽ ἔον”. [*] 63. “εἶναι” at the head of a sentence or clause is regularly emphatic, and “ἔστι” is equivalent to the later “ὄντως ἔστι”, is really, is in fact. DEM.20.18: “ἔστι δὲ τοῦθ᾽ οὑτωσὶ μὲν ἀκοῦσαι λόγον τιν̓ ἔχον”. LYS.1.16: “ἔστι δ᾽, ἔφη, Ἐρατοσθένης Οἴηθεν ὁ ταῦτα πράττων” . PLATO, Gorg. 449B: “εἰσὶ μέν, ὦ Σ., ἔνιαι τῶν ἀποκρίσεων ἀναγκαῖαι διὰ μακρῶν τοὺς λόγους πολεῖσθαι”. XEN. Cyr. 1.4.3: “καὶ ἧν μὲν ἴσως πολυλογώτερος” . THUC.7.1.4: “ὢν οὐκ ἀδύνατος”. HDT.5.124: “ἦν γὰρ . . . Ἀρισταγόρης ὁ Μιλήσιος ψυχὴν οὐκ ἄκρος”. 8.86: “ἦσάν γε καὶ ἐγένοντο . . . ἀμείνονες αὐτοὶ ἑωυτῶν” (see 60). AR. Lys. 1037: “ὡς ἐστὲ θωπικαὶ φύσει” . SOPH. O. C. 1000: “εἶ γὰρ οὐ δίκαιος” . O. T. 255: “εἰ γὰρ ἦν τὸ πρᾶγμα μὴ θεήλατον”. AESCHYL. Ag. 958: “ἔστιν θάλασσα, τίς δέ νιν κατασβέσει”; PIND. O. 1.36: “ἔστι δ᾽ ἀνδρὶ φάμεν ἐοικὸς ἀμφὶ δαιμόνων καλά”. SAPPHO, fr. 85: “ἔστι μοι κάλα πάις”. HOM. Od. 2.292-3: “ εἰσὶ δὲ νῆες“ οἴνου δὲ μηκέτ᾽ ὄντος οὐκ ἔστιν Κύπρις
οὐδ᾽ ἄλλο τερπνὸν οὐδὲν ἀνθρώποις ἔτι
”
πολλαὶ ἐν . . . Ἰθάκῃ
”. Il. 10.378-9: “ ἔστι γὰρ ἔνδον
χαλκός
”.
Other verbs
[*] 64. Copulative verbs. Other Copulative Verbs are:- “ἀκούειν”,
- “διατελεῖν”,
- “δύνασθαι”,
- “καθίστασθαι” = “γἱγνεσθαι” (often in orators)
- “κυρεῖν”, chance,
- “λαγχάνειν”,
- “μένειν”, remain,
- “πέλειν, πέλεσθαι”,
- “τελέθειν”,
- “τυγχάνειν”, happen,
- “ὑπάρχειν”, be (a basis),
- “φαίνομαι”, appear,
- “φῦναι”, comp. fuisse,
- etc.
μέγιστος αὐτοῖς τυγχάνει δορυξένων
”. AESCHYL. Pers. 598: “κακῶν μὲν ὅστις ἔμπειρος κυρεῖ”. PIND. O. 1.47: “ὡς δ᾽ ἄφαντος ἔπελες”. HOM. Od. 7.51-2: “ θαρσαλέος γὰρ ἀνὴρ ἐν πᾶσιν ἀμείνων
ἔργοισιν τελέθει
”. Il. 1.417-8: “ νῦν δ᾽ ἅμα τ᾽ ὠκύμορος καὶ ὀϊζυρὸς περὶ πάντων
ἔπλεο
”. [*] 65. Passive verbs as copulative verbs. Passive verbs of making, taking, choosing, calling, and the like are used as copulative verbs, and like the others take the same case in the subject and predicate. Such verbs are:
- “αἱρεῖσθαι”,
- “αἴρεσθαι”,
- “ἁλίσκεσθαι”,
- “ἀποδείκνυσθαι”,
- “αὐξάνεσθαι”,
- “γιγνώσκεσθαι”,
- “δηλοῦσσθαι”,
- “εὑρίσκεσθαι”,
- “ἵστασθαι”,
- “καθίστασθαι” (cf. 64),
- “καλεῖσθαι”,
- “καταλείπεσθαι”,
- “κρίνεσθαι”,
- “λαμβάνεσθαι”,
- “λέγεσθαι”,
- “νομίζεσθαι”,
- “ὀνομάζεσθαι”,
- “ποιεῖσθαι”,
- “τετύχθαι, τυχθῆναι”,
- “ὑπολαμβάνεσθαι”,
- “χειροτονεῖσθαι”, and others.