[1223a]
[1]
for of things that are of necessity the
result is necessary, albeit the subsequent stages may possibly happen
in the opposite way. And the things that depend on men themselves in
many cases belong to this class of variables, and men are themselves
the first principle of things of this sort. Hence it is clear that all the
actions of which a man is the first principle and controller may
either happen or not happen, and that it depends on himself for them
to happen or not, as he controls their existence or non-existence. But
of things which it depends on him to do or not to do he is himself the
cause, and what he is the cause of depends on himself. And since goodness and
badness and the actions that spring from them are in some cases
praiseworthy and in other cases blameworthy (for praise and blame are
not given to things that we possess from necessity or fortune or
nature but to things of which we ourselves are the cause, since for
things of which another person is the cause, that person has the blame
and the praise), it is clear that both goodness and badness have to do
with things where a man is himself the cause and origin of his
actions. We must, then,
ascertain what is the kind of actions of which a man is himself the
cause and origin. Now we all agree that each man is the cause of all
those acts that are voluntary and purposive for him individually, and
that he is not himself the cause of those that are involuntary. And
clearly he commits voluntarily all the acts that he commits purposely.
It is clear, then,
[20]
that both
goodness and badness will be in the class of things
voluntary.We must, therefore, ascertain what voluntary
and involuntary mean, and what is purposive choice, since they enter
into the definition of goodness and badness. And first we must
consider the meaning of voluntary and involuntary. Now they would seem to refer
to one of three things—conformity with appetition, or with
purposive choice, or with thought: voluntary is what conforms with one
of these and involuntary is what contravenes one of them. But moreover there are three
subdivisions of appetition—wish, passion and desire; so that
we have to distinguish these. And first we must consider conformity
with desire.It would seem that everything that conforms
with desire is voluntary. For everything involuntary seems to be
forced, and what is forced and everything that people do or suffer
under necessity is painful, as indeed Evenus says:
“
For all necessity doth cause
distress—
” Evenus of Paros = Theog. 472 1 so that if a thing is painful it is forced and if a thing is forced it is painful; but everything contrary to desire is painful (for desire is for what is pleasant), so that it is forced and involuntary. Therefore what conforms with desire is voluntary, for things contrary to and things in conformity with desire are opposite to one another. Again, all wickedness makes a man more unrighteous, and lack of self-control seems to be wickedness; and the uncontrolled man is the sort of man to act in conformity with desire contrary to calculation, and he shows his lack of control when his conduct is guided by desire;
” Evenus of Paros = Theog. 472 1 so that if a thing is painful it is forced and if a thing is forced it is painful; but everything contrary to desire is painful (for desire is for what is pleasant), so that it is forced and involuntary. Therefore what conforms with desire is voluntary, for things contrary to and things in conformity with desire are opposite to one another. Again, all wickedness makes a man more unrighteous, and lack of self-control seems to be wickedness; and the uncontrolled man is the sort of man to act in conformity with desire contrary to calculation, and he shows his lack of control when his conduct is guided by desire;
1 Quoted also Aristot. Met. 1015a 28 and Aristot. Rhet.1370a 10, and = Theognidea 472 (but that has χρῆμ᾽ ἀνιαρόν); probably by the elder Evenus of Paros, fl. 460 B.C. (Bowra, Cl. Rev. 48.2).
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