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June 5th (search for this): chapter 15
ies of children, such as curved spine, club-foot, etc. See club-foot apparatus. Os′cil-lat-ing—cyl′in-der Steam—en′gine. （Steam.) A simple form of engine, in which the cylinder rocks on trunnions and the piston-rod connects directly to the crank. It was invented by James Watt, and was brought into use by Maudslay. Watt's model, made at Soho in 1763, was exhibited at the London Exhibition of 1851. Witty of Hull patented the oscillating cylinder in England in 1813. English patent, June 5. Goldsworth Gurney was in some way associated with the improvement of it, and has been credited with the invention. It was introduced by those two famous makers of marine and river engines, Maudslay and Field and Penn and Sons. This engine has a cylinder mounted on gudgeons or trunnions, generally near the middle of its length, on which it is capable of swaying to and fro through a small arc, so as to enable the piston-rod to follow the movements of the crank, to which it is di
November 23rd (search for this): chapter 15
t. The illustration shows a form with a front, back flues, damper, a rake-hole for the embers, and an ashpit beneath. Out-oven. Loaves found in a Pompeian bakery indicate that the name of the meal, wheat, rye, beans, etc., was stamped on bread. Among the recent discoveries in a baker's oven, so hermetically sealed, says Marc Monnier, that not a particle of volcanic ashes had entered, there were eighty-one loaves, whole, hard, and black, found just as they had been placed on the 23d of November, A. D. 79. Enchanted with the discovery, Fiorelli himself climbed into the oven and took out the precious relies with his own hands. Most of them weigh about a pound, are round, depressed in the center, and divided into eight lobes. Loaves precisely like them are still made in Sicily. 2. The baker's oven. a. Until lately, and even now in many places, this was but an extension of the one last described; the additional capacity enabling it to act upon a larger quantity, and the lar
1450 BC (search for this): chapter 15
-frames yet remain in the country to attest the fact. Olives were known in ancient Egypt, and their cultivation was imported thence into Greece. Cecrops (1556 B. C.) is credited with the introduction of the tree, and Aristaeus the Athenian (1450 B. C.) was deified as the inventor of expressing-machinery. They were introduced into Italy about 562 B. C., during the reign of Servius Tullius, which was coeval with that of Nebuchadnezzar, and with the prophecies of Daniel. This was nearly 100 hydrostatic-press pump. The oil-press was invented by Aristaeus, the Athenian ; so says Pliny. To find the date at which he flourished, we must consult the marriage register. He was a son of Apollo, but married a daughter of Cadmus about 1450 B. C., let us say. He found time between his spells of running after Eurydice to instruct men in the culture of the olive and of bees. This was about the time of Joshua. Archaeologists have shown it to be probable that the Phoenicians practiced bot
150 BC (search for this): chapter 15
outh-organ, or Pandean pipes, was expanded into an instrument resembling the bagpipes, in which the air for supplying the pipes producing the musical tones was blown by the performer. In the Spiritalia of Hero of Alexandria, who flourished 150 B. C., we find a description of an organ blown by the agency of a wind-mill which works the piston of the air-pump. Its invention is, perhaps, to be credited to Ctesibus of Alexandria, though it is likely that it was the result of the gradual improv, from the text of the Spiritalia. The descriptions of it by Athenaeus, Vitruvius, and Claudian render it certain that the pipes were musical, and blown by the force of water, instead of expansible air-bellows. An organ blown by wind-power, 150 B. C. Athenaeus thus describes it:– And Alcides said: But this engine, the hydraulic organ, whether you choose to class it among stringed instruments or among wind instruments, is the invention of a fellow-countryman of mine, an Alexandrian
1556 BC (search for this): chapter 15
Hiram with 20,000 baths of oil, in addition to the grain and wine, in return for the timber of cedar and timber of fir, yet the Phoenicians themselves were great cultivators of the olive and traders in oil. The means they used were the mill, such as we now call the Chilian, followed by a lever-press. The stones, bed-plates, and press-frames yet remain in the country to attest the fact. Olives were known in ancient Egypt, and their cultivation was imported thence into Greece. Cecrops (1556 B. C.) is credited with the introduction of the tree, and Aristaeus the Athenian (1450 B. C.) was deified as the inventor of expressing-machinery. They were introduced into Italy about 562 B. C., during the reign of Servius Tullius, which was coeval with that of Nebuchadnezzar, and with the prophecies of Daniel. This was nearly 100 years before Marathon. Oil mills and presses. The Phoenician mill is shown at a in the accompanying cut, which is taken from Thompson's Researches in Pales
1600 BC (search for this): chapter 15
,600 pounds. Its partner yet stands at Heliopolis. It is marked with the name of Osirtasen I., about 2100 B. C. Roman obelisks were also imported by Augustus and Caligula. Other obelisks are found at Constantinople, Paris, Arles, Florence, etc. The Egyptian obelisks are usually of granite, but there are two small ones in the British Museum made of basalt, and one at Philae of sandstone. The date of the Flaminian obelisk, which is covered with hieroglyphics, is supposed to be about 1600 B. C. The obelisk in Paris, erected in 1833, was brought from Luxor. It is 76 feet in hight. Of the needles of Cleopatra, so called, one is standing, 63 feet in hight, and the other is lying upon the ground. The mode of raising an obelisk seems to have been by tilting it from an inclined plane into a pit, at the bottom of which the pedestal was placed to receive it. A roller of wood was fastened at each side to the end of the obelisk, which enabled it to run down the wall opposite to the
162 BC (search for this): chapter 15
recorded not less than fourteen times in the last 1,000 years. Its length varies in different countries, as the facts show and theory had supposed. Eratosthenes, B. C. 276, attempted the measurement of the size of the earth, by ascertaining the distance between Alexandria and Syene, the differences of latitude between which places he had found to be 1/50 of the earth's circumference. Some previous measurements are mentioned under armil (which see). Hipparchus of Nicaeea in Bithynia, 162 B. C., laid down a map by the determination of the latitude and longitude of places. A degree was measured on the shores of the Red Sea by the Khalif al Maimoun, the son of Haroun al Raschid, about A. D. 820. The exact determination of the length of a degree was considered of so much importance that, in 1735, the Academy of Sciences of Paris dispatched two commissions, one to Peru, the other to Lapland. The latter party accomplished their mission and returned in 16 months; the former party
2100 BC (search for this): chapter 15
efore the north portico of the Church of St. John Lateran, where it was erected in 1588. Its whole hight is about 149 feet; without the base, 105 feet. It was removed to Alexandria by Constantine, and to Rome by his son Constantius, and placed in the Circus Maximus. It was overthrown, broken into three pieces, and a piece was removed from its base before re-erecting. It weighs about 985,600 pounds. Its partner yet stands at Heliopolis. It is marked with the name of Osirtasen I., about 2100 B. C. Roman obelisks were also imported by Augustus and Caligula. Other obelisks are found at Constantinople, Paris, Arles, Florence, etc. The Egyptian obelisks are usually of granite, but there are two small ones in the British Museum made of basalt, and one at Philae of sandstone. The date of the Flaminian obelisk, which is covered with hieroglyphics, is supposed to be about 1600 B. C. The obelisk in Paris, erected in 1833, was brought from Luxor. It is 76 feet in hight. Of the nee
276 BC (search for this): chapter 15
France, measured with an instrument of this kind, in 1550, a degree of the meridian between Paris and Amiens, and found it to be 303 toises less than Picard afterward found it to be. It is supposed that the revolutions of the wheel were noted by striking on a bell. The measurement of a degree of latitude has been made and recorded not less than fourteen times in the last 1,000 years. Its length varies in different countries, as the facts show and theory had supposed. Eratosthenes, B. C. 276, attempted the measurement of the size of the earth, by ascertaining the distance between Alexandria and Syene, the differences of latitude between which places he had found to be 1/50 of the earth's circumference. Some previous measurements are mentioned under armil (which see). Hipparchus of Nicaeea in Bithynia, 162 B. C., laid down a map by the determination of the latitude and longitude of places. A degree was measured on the shores of the Red Sea by the Khalif al Maimoun, the son of
3875 BC (search for this): chapter 15
have five key-boards, one above another. The first, nearest to the organist, is that of the choir organ. The second, that of the great organ. The third, the bombarde key-board. The fourth, the recitative key-board. The fifth, the echo key-board. Below these is the pedal key-board, played by the feet. The music of the organ is sometimes written on three lines, the two upper ones for the hands and the under one for the pedal key-board. The organ of Jubal (Gen. IV. 21), 3875 B. C., may be supposed to have been a mouth-organ or Pandean pipes. His name is associated with the invention of the harp and the organ,— stringed and wind instruments, — and the same connection of musical instruments is maintained in the Book of Job and the Psalms. In the latter case, the trumpet, harp (of two kinds), timbrel (tambourine), organ, and cymbal are referred to. The Greek word from which our word organ is derived, denoted an instrument of any kind, but was more particularly appli
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