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January (search for this): chapter 16
otable exceptions, attar gul, or attar of roses, and eau-de-cologne. See Morfit's Perfumery, Philadelphia, 1853. Per′get-ing. See Pargeting. Per′i-a′gua. A canoe formed by hollowing out a single log or by joining two logs correspondingly hollowed out. A dug-out. Per′i-er. （Founding.) A metal-founder's iron rod for holding back the scum in the ladle. Pe′ri-od. The full stop (.) which marks the end of a sentence in punctuating, or indicates an abbreviation, as Mr., Jan., B. C., etc. Pe-ri-od′o-scope. （Surgical.) An instrument for determining the date of menstruation, labor, etc., and for other calculations. Peri-os′te-um-el′e-va-tor. （Surgical.) A device for loosening and raising the periosteum out of the way of an instrument in making exsections, etc. Per′i-scop′ic lens. （Optics.) Dr. Wollaston's periscopic lens for microscopes had two plano-convex lenses ground to the same radius, and between their plane surface
February (search for this): chapter 16
mpt at the reproduction of carbon prints was made for thirty-five years after his time. In 1829, M. Niepce associated himself with M. Daguerre, and no doubt contributed much to the latter's beautiful process. In the year 1834, Mr. Fox Talbot began the investigations which finally resulted in a valuable working process. On the 31st January, 1839, six months prior to the publication of M. Daguerre's process, Mr. Fox Talbot communicated his photographic discoveries, and in the following February he published a description of his method, to which, as afterwards perfected, he gave the name of calotype. He prepared a sheet of paper with iodide of silver, by treating it alternately with solutions of nitrate of silver and iodide of potassium. When dry, and just before use, he covered the surface with a solution of nitrate of silver and gallic acid, and dried it again, by which means he greatly enhanced its sensitiveness. A very brief exposure of paper so prepared to light produced an
March (search for this): chapter 16
It is said that the best reeds for the purpose formerly grew near Memphis, on the Nile; near Cnidus of Caria, in Asia Minor; in Armenia and in Italy: those of the latter being of relatively poor quality. A place yet famous for them, and which may have supplied the ancient demand in part, is in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf, in a large fen or tract of soggy land supplied with water by the river Helle, a place of Arabia formed by united arms of the Euphrates and Tigris. They are cut in March, tied in bundles, laid six months in a manure-heap, where they assume a beautiful color, mottled yellow and black. （Chardin.) Tournefort saw them growing in the neighborhood of Teflis in Georgia. Miller describes the cane as growing no higher than a man, the stem three or four lines in thickness, and solid from one knot to another, excepting the central white pith. The incipient fermentation in the manureheap dries up the pith and hardens the cane. The pens are about the size of the larg
March 1st (search for this): chapter 16
plowed ground. On the heavier soils, the process is somewhat different. An eight-horse team moves a four-gang plow, and gets over about six acres per day. The seed is then sown by a machine which scatters it forty feet, and sows from seventy-five to one hundred acres in a day, and the ground is then harrowed and crossharrowed. When the farmer in this valley has done his winter sowing, he turns his teams and men into other ground, which he is to summer fallow. This he can do from the first of March to the middle of May; and by it he secures a remunerative crop for the following year, even though the season be dry. See gang-plow. 2. (Wood-working.) A grooving-plane in which the adjustable fence is secured to two transverse stems which pass through the stock of the plane, and are secured by wedges or screws. It is fitted with eight irons of various sizes, and is used in making grooves in door-stiles to receive the panel, and for similar purposes. See plane. 3. (Bookbind
May (search for this): chapter 16
vier soils, the process is somewhat different. An eight-horse team moves a four-gang plow, and gets over about six acres per day. The seed is then sown by a machine which scatters it forty feet, and sows from seventy-five to one hundred acres in a day, and the ground is then harrowed and crossharrowed. When the farmer in this valley has done his winter sowing, he turns his teams and men into other ground, which he is to summer fallow. This he can do from the first of March to the middle of May; and by it he secures a remunerative crop for the following year, even though the season be dry. See gang-plow. 2. (Wood-working.) A grooving-plane in which the adjustable fence is secured to two transverse stems which pass through the stock of the plane, and are secured by wedges or screws. It is fitted with eight irons of various sizes, and is used in making grooves in door-stiles to receive the panel, and for similar purposes. See plane. 3. (Bookbinding.) An implement for sha
May 24th (search for this): chapter 16
me of Crates of Mallos is honorably associated with that of Eumenes in the enterprise, if not the invention. All public documents under Charlemagne were written on parchment except by the Popes, who used papyrus till the twelfth century. Papyrus continued to be used for epistolary correspondence till the introduction of paper by the Saracens. The bull of Pope Agapetus, dated 951, was written on papyrus, and perished in the burning by the French communists of the library of the Louvre, May 24 – 25, 1871. Many ages must have passed in Egypt before the ingenious mode of obtaining paper from papyrus was devised. At this distant period we may assume that Pliny's remarks were true of the Nile land, as in that writer's own age they were true of Asia and parts of Europe. At first men wrote upon leaves and afterward upon the bark or rind of trees. Reference has already been made to the terms volumen and liber, and the origin of another set of words is no less apparent. The moder
June 1st (search for this): chapter 16
her to bring forth abundantly. In the excess of his virility he even embraced Nephthys (the barren ground of the desert adjacent to that cultivated), causing her to yield a fruitage. And in the seven plenteous years the earth brought forth by handfuls. Then followed a succession of years during which the overflow was stinted in quantity, and the land, missing its usual top-dressing, refused to repay the toils of the husbandman. The periodical rise of the Nile commences about the first of June, continues for three months, remains stationary about twelve days, and then as gradually subsides. The rise is greatest in Upper Egypt, and less toward the month of the river. The rise was less at former periods than now. In the time of Moeris, it is said that eight cubits were sufficient; fifteen or sixteen were required in the time of Herodotus, 456 B. C. At the present day eighteen cubits is considered the lowest inundation at Cairo. In the time of Pliny (A. D. 70) twelve cubits
July (search for this): chapter 16
rresting photographic action and fixing the image; for the conception and production of a negative, and the subsequent printing of positive prints by light; and, above all, for the discovery of the wonderful development of the latent image by gallic acid. His process, as above given, was greatly improved by himself and others, but our space does not permit of details. In January, 1839, the announcement of Daguerre's invention was made to the world, but no description was given until the July following, when a bill was passed in the French legislature giving him a pension of 6,000 francs, and 4,000 francs to Isidore Niepce, the son of M. Joseph Nicephore Niepce, above mentioned. The pictures were produced on silver plates or upon sheetcopper plated with silver. The surface was first cleaned and polished with great care; it was then exposed to the fumes of dry iodine until a film of iodide of silver was produced upon its face. When the proper amount of iodization was obtained,
September (search for this): chapter 16
understood by the old Romans. As stated in the Georgics, the purpose is to pulverize the soil, expose it to the atmosphere and keep down weeds. Stiff soil was plowed four times for wheat; broken in spring, cross-plowed in summer, and twice in September. Richer ground was plowed three times, the earlier September plowing being omitted. Poor ground was only plowed twice for a wheat crop. They understood summer fallowing. Deep plowing was recommended. A day's work in good soil was one jugSeptember plowing being omitted. Poor ground was only plowed twice for a wheat crop. They understood summer fallowing. Deep plowing was recommended. A day's work in good soil was one juger, equal to four fifths of an English acre. The modern plow with a share and mold-board intended to run in a certain track and lift a furrow-slice, which it upset against the previous one or completely reversed, seems to have been unknown till quite late times. The improvements of the last hundred years are probably greater than those of the previous thousand, and the tool is regarded as about perfect. Any great advances will now consist in the adaptation of machinery as a motor. A numbe
November 28th (search for this): chapter 16
wer toward the foot, were to be fixed radially upon a cylinder. This cylinder, with its type, was to revolve in gear with another cylinder covered with soft leather (the impression-cylinder), and the type received its ink from another cylinder, to which the inking apparatus was applied. The paper was impressed by passing between the type and impression cylinders — Hansard. Konig, a German, constructed a printing-machine for Mr. Walter of the London Times, in 1814; the issue of the 28th of November of that year, being printed on Konig's press, was the first newspaper printed by machinery driven by steam-power. The rate was 1,100 impressions per hour; this was afterward increased to 1,800. In this machine ordinary type was used; the form was flat, and passed beneath a large cylinder which delivered the impression. The paper was held to its cylinder by tapes; the form was reciprocated beneath the inking apparatus and the paper-cylinder alternately. To double the rate, a paper-
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