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... 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
1321 AD (search for this): chapter 16
t of the train. c. Besides these are devices not chronometric, as the hygrometric pendulum, ballistic pendulum, etc. Previous to the application of the pendulum, a fly-wheel was used, the vanes meeting the resistance of the air, forming a limit to the speed, as in the musical boxes of the present day. Such was probably the regulator in the clocks of the Saracens, which were moved by weights as early as the eleventh century; the clock which struck the hours, referred to by Dante (1265-1321); the clock in the old Palace Yard, London, put up about 1288 and remaining till the time of Elizabeth; the clock made by William of Wallingford in the reign of Richard II. （1377-85). Ebn Junis, of the University of Cordova, invented the timemeasuring pendulum, and his friend and fellow-philosopher, Gerbert, invented the escapement, as it is believed. Gerbert became, successively, schoolmaster at Rheims (where he had a clock), Archbishop of Ravenna, and Pope Sylvester II. He died by poi
March 11th, 1873 AD (search for this): chapter 16
es a flask, clamping-attachment, and case, forming an apparatus for attaching artificial teeth to the pyroxyline base. Hyatt and Hyatt, November 19, 1872, describe process and apparatus for manufacturing celluloid. The mixture of pyroxyline and gum-camphor is pressed into cakes and then pressed in a pile with alternating layers of paper. The combined materials are pressed by a plunger in a heated cylinder, dissolved, and discharged at a nozzle in a continuous rod or sheet. Jones, March 11, 1873, makes truss-pads of pyroxyline. Hyatt, April 29, 1873, has a means of subjecting newly coated articles to pressure, which absorbs the solvent, but does not allow expansion of the coating or formation of air-cells. McClelland, October 21, 1873, describes modes of removing the solvents from xyloidine and pyroxyline compounds. Smith, May 12, 1874, makes an artificial coral. Hyatt and Hyatt, October 27, 1874 (No. 156, 352) dissolve the pyroxyline in camphor and alcohol, which r
350 AD (search for this): chapter 16
our per cent per annum, and the land was worth twenty-five years purchase, or twenty-five times its rental. Agriculture declined from the time of Cato to that of Pliny. The best of the memoranda on husbandry compiled by the latter are from Cato and Varro. It revived in the part of Gaul called Rhaetia, where reaping-machines were running in the first century A. D., as recorded by Pliny, and subsequently referred to by Palladius. The latter describes them in his De re rustica, about A. D. 350, as driven by oxen and harvesting fields in one day. See reaping-machine. From these authors we also find that the Gauls had moldboard plows, with and without wheels; ate good wheaten yeastraised bread, lighter, says Pliny, than we have in Rome ; and this although the Romans dug down the chalk-hill Leucorgeum, between Naples and Puteoli, to get an artificial whitening. Pliny says (A. D. 79): Plows are of various kinds. The colter is the iron part that cuts up the dense earth before it
1320 AD (search for this): chapter 16
er and of paper-making become frequent. Linen paper is found in documents of 1241 (edict of Emperor Fred. II.) and 1300. The Arabian physician Abdollatiph, who visited Egypt in 1200, says that the mummy-cloths (linen) were habitually used to make wrapping-paper for the shop-keepers. The linen paper of the thirteenth century had the waterlines and water-mark. One specimen had a tower. The earliest manuscript on linen paper known to be English bears date fourteenth year of Edward III., 1320. The first water-mark, a ram's head, is found in a book of accounts belonging to an official of Bordeaux, which was then subject to England, dated 1330. It has been claimed that linen paper was made in England as early as 1330, though it is supposed that no linen paper was made in Italy previous to 1367. In 1390, Ulman Strother established a paper-mill at Nuremberg in Bavaria, operated by two rollers, which set in motion eighteen stampers. This indicates the process of pulping the fiber
September (search for this): chapter 16
understood by the old Romans. As stated in the Georgics, the purpose is to pulverize the soil, expose it to the atmosphere and keep down weeds. Stiff soil was plowed four times for wheat; broken in spring, cross-plowed in summer, and twice in September. Richer ground was plowed three times, the earlier September plowing being omitted. Poor ground was only plowed twice for a wheat crop. They understood summer fallowing. Deep plowing was recommended. A day's work in good soil was one jugSeptember plowing being omitted. Poor ground was only plowed twice for a wheat crop. They understood summer fallowing. Deep plowing was recommended. A day's work in good soil was one juger, equal to four fifths of an English acre. The modern plow with a share and mold-board intended to run in a certain track and lift a furrow-slice, which it upset against the previous one or completely reversed, seems to have been unknown till quite late times. The improvements of the last hundred years are probably greater than those of the previous thousand, and the tool is regarded as about perfect. Any great advances will now consist in the adaptation of machinery as a motor. A numbe
1315 AD (search for this): chapter 16
ing improved upon the processes of the Moors, from whom they learned the art, by stamping the raw material, raw cotton and rags, by the aid of a watermill. In 1170, Eustathius, the commentator on Homer, remarks that papyrus had fallen into disuse. In 1178, we find several specimens of flax paper in Spain, and in the University of Riteln in Germany a document is preserved, signed by Adolphus, Count of Schaumberg, made from linen rags. A letter from Joinville to Louis X. of France, dated 1315, and written on paper made from rags, is yet extant. After this period the notices of paper and of paper-making become frequent. Linen paper is found in documents of 1241 (edict of Emperor Fred. II.) and 1300. The Arabian physician Abdollatiph, who visited Egypt in 1200, says that the mummy-cloths (linen) were habitually used to make wrapping-paper for the shop-keepers. The linen paper of the thirteenth century had the waterlines and water-mark. One specimen had a tower. The earlies
July (search for this): chapter 16
rresting photographic action and fixing the image; for the conception and production of a negative, and the subsequent printing of positive prints by light; and, above all, for the discovery of the wonderful development of the latent image by gallic acid. His process, as above given, was greatly improved by himself and others, but our space does not permit of details. In January, 1839, the announcement of Daguerre's invention was made to the world, but no description was given until the July following, when a bill was passed in the French legislature giving him a pension of 6,000 francs, and 4,000 francs to Isidore Niepce, the son of M. Joseph Nicephore Niepce, above mentioned. The pictures were produced on silver plates or upon sheetcopper plated with silver. The surface was first cleaned and polished with great care; it was then exposed to the fumes of dry iodine until a film of iodide of silver was produced upon its face. When the proper amount of iodization was obtained,
May (search for this): chapter 16
vier soils, the process is somewhat different. An eight-horse team moves a four-gang plow, and gets over about six acres per day. The seed is then sown by a machine which scatters it forty feet, and sows from seventy-five to one hundred acres in a day, and the ground is then harrowed and crossharrowed. When the farmer in this valley has done his winter sowing, he turns his teams and men into other ground, which he is to summer fallow. This he can do from the first of March to the middle of May; and by it he secures a remunerative crop for the following year, even though the season be dry. See gang-plow. 2. (Wood-working.) A grooving-plane in which the adjustable fence is secured to two transverse stems which pass through the stock of the plane, and are secured by wedges or screws. It is fitted with eight irons of various sizes, and is used in making grooves in door-stiles to receive the panel, and for similar purposes. See plane. 3. (Bookbinding.) An implement for sha
March (search for this): chapter 16
It is said that the best reeds for the purpose formerly grew near Memphis, on the Nile; near Cnidus of Caria, in Asia Minor; in Armenia and in Italy: those of the latter being of relatively poor quality. A place yet famous for them, and which may have supplied the ancient demand in part, is in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf, in a large fen or tract of soggy land supplied with water by the river Helle, a place of Arabia formed by united arms of the Euphrates and Tigris. They are cut in March, tied in bundles, laid six months in a manure-heap, where they assume a beautiful color, mottled yellow and black. （Chardin.) Tournefort saw them growing in the neighborhood of Teflis in Georgia. Miller describes the cane as growing no higher than a man, the stem three or four lines in thickness, and solid from one knot to another, excepting the central white pith. The incipient fermentation in the manureheap dries up the pith and hardens the cane. The pens are about the size of the larg
January (search for this): chapter 16
otable exceptions, attar gul, or attar of roses, and eau-de-cologne. See Morfit's Perfumery, Philadelphia, 1853. Per′get-ing. See Pargeting. Per′i-a′gua. A canoe formed by hollowing out a single log or by joining two logs correspondingly hollowed out. A dug-out. Per′i-er. （Founding.) A metal-founder's iron rod for holding back the scum in the ladle. Pe′ri-od. The full stop (.) which marks the end of a sentence in punctuating, or indicates an abbreviation, as Mr., Jan., B. C., etc. Pe-ri-od′o-scope. （Surgical.) An instrument for determining the date of menstruation, labor, etc., and for other calculations. Peri-os′te-um-el′e-va-tor. （Surgical.) A device for loosening and raising the periosteum out of the way of an instrument in making exsections, etc. Per′i-scop′ic lens. （Optics.) Dr. Wollaston's periscopic lens for microscopes had two plano-convex lenses ground to the same radius, and between their plane surface
... 174 175 176 177 178 179 180