Roma
（
Ῥώμη). Rome. Rome lies on the river Tiber, about
fourteen miles, in a straight line, from the sea. Its latitude (41¡ 53' N.) is the
same as that of Chicago; its longitude (12¡ 29' E.) corresponds very nearly with
that of Venice and of Leipzig. Its site forms a part of the gently rolling volcanic plain
which lies between the sea and the Sabine and Alban Mountains, extending from Cape Linaro, on
the north, as far south as Astura and the Pontine Marshes. The earlier city was confined to
the left bank of the river, which here pursues a very winding course and, dividing, surrounds
a small, flat island; but before the end of the Republic a considerable suburb had sprung up
on the right bank, which became the fourteenth Regio in the division of the city under
Augustus.
The oft-mentioned hills of Rome are low, and now, with some exceptions, of gentle slope. In
ancient times they were more steep; for the intervening depressions (and to a less extent the
lower parts of the hills themselves) have been covered, to the depth of nine, twelve, and in
places even thirty feet, by the accumulation of débris. They are partly spurs, or
irregular projections, from the line of bluffs which marks the descent from the general
altitude of the Campagna into the valley of the Tiber, partly isolated masses nearer the
river-bed. To the former class belong the Quirinal and Viminal hills, whose highest elevation
above the surface of the Tiber (this being reckoned at 21.98 feet above sea-level) is about
158 feet; the Esquiline, with its two spurs Cispius (151 feet) and Oppius (161 feet); and the
Caelian (141 feet), which is separated from both the Esquiline and the Aventine by valleys.
The hills standing by themselves are the Capitoline (the two summits 141 feet, the depression
between them 98 feet above the Tiber), which was originally connected with the Quirinal by a
ridge; the Palatine (141 feet); and the Aventine (128 feet). To the north of the Quirinal, but
not counted as one of the Seven Hills, was the Collis Hortorum, now the Pincio (164 feet). The
small elevation southwest of the Aventine (Mons Testaceus, now Monte Testaccio, 115 feet) is
entirely artificial, being composed chiefly of fragments of pottery. Along the right bank
stretched the high ridge of the Ianiculum (253 feet), with its continuation, Mons Vaticanus.
Between the Quirinal and the Tiber was the level Campus Martius, at first a training-field
outside the walls, in later times built upon and included within the city limits. The
cattle-mart
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Plan of Rome.
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(Forum Boarium) lay between the Palatine and the Tiber, the Circus Maximus between the
Palatine and the Aventine. On the low ground north of the Palatine, stretching towards the
Capitoline, was the Forum (often called Forum Romanum, or Forum Magnum, to distinguish it from
the imperial forums), the spot in which the life of Rome centred; as it became too small for
the congestion of business, relief was sought by building a series of extensions (Fora
Caesarum) on the north side. The Colosseum (Amphitheatrum Flavium), the greatest monument of
Roman architecture, stands in the depression between the Palatine, Esquiline, and Caelian
Hills. See
Amphitheatrum.
In its development as a city Rome passed through several stages, some of which are clearly
defined. Numerous indications point to the Palatine Hill as the seat of earliest settlement.
At a remote period it was fortified by a strong wall of well-squared tufa blocks, laid without
mortar; fragments of this wall have been discovered on the south and west sides. At least
three gates gave access to the hill-top thus enclosed: the Porta Mugonia (
vetus porta
Palatii, cf. fig. 7) on the north side, the River-gate (Porta Romanula) on the west
side, and a third, of which the name is uncertain, on the south side. To the latest times the
Romans regarded the Palatine with especial reverence, and there cherished certain memorials
associated with their oldest legends, such as the Hut of Romulus (Casa Romuli), which, though
no doubt built of wood, and straw-thatched, was kept in repair, and was still standing
in the fourth century A.D. See
Domus, p. 536.
How long the Palatine city sufficed for the needs of the population cannot even be
conjectured. After a time the limits seem to have been extended so as to include the Cispius,
the Oppius, and the depression between them (Fagutal), together with the valley lying between
these and the Palatine (Subura), as well as the small spur which the Palatine throws out
towards the northeast (Velia), and a portion of its slope on the northwest side (Cermalus). To
the city thus formed of seven parts (the original Palatine city being counted as one) the name
Septimontium appears to have been given; but evidence regarding it is both meagre and
unsatisfactory. More is known about the boundaries of Rome in the next stage of development,
when enlarged by the addition of the Quirinal, Viminal, and Caelian Hills. It was now divided
into four wards (
regiones; cf. Varro,
L. L. v. 45), the
first (Regio Suburana) comprising the Caelian Hill and the Subura; the second (Esquilina), the
Cispius, Oppius, and Fagutal; the third (Collina), the Quirinal and Viminal Hills; the fourth
(Palatina) included the Palatine, Cermalus, and Velia. The Capitoline Hill was made a part of
the city, but not set off as a separate ward; it was retained as a common sanctuary and
fortress. Of the fortifications, by which this city of the four wards must have been
protected, no trace has yet been found.
The bounds of Rome in the period with which the name of Servius Tullius is connected can be
made out, for a large portion of the circuit, with exactness; for they
were unchanged during the whole time of the Republic, and were marked by a line of imposing
fortifications (
agger Servii Tullii), remains of which have been discovered at
many points. The Aventine Hill was now included within the limits, which were extended also
further to the east on the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline Hills. The wall of Servius was
pierced by a number of gates, of which those most frequently mentioned are the Porta
Carmentalis, at the foot of the Capitoline; the Porta Collina and Porta Esquilina, on the east
side; and especially the Porta Capena, which opened into the Appian Way. The area bounded by
the wall was about two square miles.
By the time of Augustus, Rome had extended beyond the Servian wall on every side. In B.C. 8
he divided the whole city, including the parts beyond the Servian limits, into fourteen wards
(indicated on the Plan by Roman numerals). In each ward was afterwards placed a watch-house
(
excubitorium) for the
vigiles, of whom there were
seven cohorts (=about 7000 men), so distributed that each cohort looked after two wards; the
duties of the
vigiles were those of our policemen and firemen combined.
The wards were subdivided into precincts (
vici; the
vicus as a subdivision is much older than the time of Augustus), each comprising a
group, or block, of buildings; over the precincts were the precinct-masters (
magistri vicorum), whose duties included not only the general oversight of other
matters, but especially provision for the worship of the Lares Compitales (q. v.), to which
the worship of the Genius of Augustus was added.
This larger Rome was finally fortified by a massive wall, commenced by Aurelian in A.D. 271,
but not finished till the reign of Probus (A.D. 276-282). The Aurelian wall, as it is
generally called (on the Plan,
Murus Aureliani et Probi), was about 54 feet
high on the outside, faced with brick, and strengthened (at any rate after the first
restoration) by 381 square towers. It was repaired by Arcadius and Honorius in A.D. 403,
afterwards by other rulers, and by several Popes; the greater part is still standing. It was
constructed in great haste, as is shown by the large use of materials taken from other
structures, and by the fact that walls previously erected for different purposes (e. g. see
Plan,
Castra Praetoria and
Amphitheatrum Castrense), whose
aggregate length amounted to about one sixth of the entire circuit, were incorporated in it as
they stood. There were originally fourteen gates, vaulted, and flanked with round towers,
besides the posterns, or small passages used for purposes of traffic in time of peace; the
number was raised to fifteen by the enlargement of the Porta Pinciana from a postern to a gate
of full size, probably by Honorius (
Bull. Com. Arch. 1892, p. 102). The whole
length of the wall was 11.7 miles (18837.50 m.); the area enclosed by it was 5.019 square
miles, less than one-eighth the area of New York City.
The religious boundary of Rome, the
Pomerium
(q.v.), was not moved forward at the same time with the civil and military limits. The
Pomerium of the city in the period when it comprised four wards and the Capitoline remained
unchanged till the time of Sulla , who caused an extension to be made, but for some reason did
not include the Aventine; this was outside the Pomerium till the reign of Claudius. Only
he who had extended the territorial limits of Rome was entitled to the distinction of
enlarging the Pomerium. After Sulla, at least Claudius, Nero, Vespasian, and Titus availed
themselves of the privilege; and the line of Aurelian's wall for considerable distances seems
to have coincided with a Pomerium previously fixed, perhaps also with an earlier limit of
taxation for provisions brought into the city.
The population of Rome in the different periods cannot be estimated, even approximately;
but, to judge from the area within the Aurelian wall, it can hardly at any time have exceeded
1,800,000.
The Tiber within the Aurelian wall was spanned by several bridges. The earliest was the Pons
Sublicius, which was constructed of wood so that it could be cut down easily on the approach
of an enemy; it was kept in repair, on religious grounds, even after bridges of stone stood
above and below it. Next came the bridges connecting the island with the two banks, Pons
Fabricius and Pons Cestius, both originally of wood, but renewed in stone in the first century
B.C. The first stone bridge was the Pons Aemilius, also called Lapideus, dating from B.C. 142.
The others were Pons Agrippae (reign of Augustus), Pons Aurelius (probably dating from the
reign of Caracalla), and Pons Probi (reign of Probus). Frequently reckoned with these are two
bridges outside the walls—the famous Mulvian Bridge (Pons Mulvius or Milvius, B.C.
109), two miles north on the Via Flaminia; and the Pons Aelius by the Campus Martius, built by
Hadrian. Nero's bridge (Pons Neronis) was broken down, perhaps as early as the time of
Hadrian. See
Pons.
Along the Tiber were wharfs. The river-bed was skilfully adjusted—far more
skilfully than under the system adopted some years ago and put into effect at enormous expense
by the Italian engineers—to the great variation in the volume of water carried down,
which at flood-height has been known to measure fourteen times the amount flowing when the
river is at its ordinary level. The channel was graded at three elevations, so as to make
three stages. Thus at the Pons Aelius the bottom division, for low water, was 218.2 feet wide;
the middle division, for ordinary height, 319.9 feet wide; while to the upper division,
designed to carry off the water in time of flood, a width of 442.9 feet was given
(
Bull. Com. Arch. 1893, p. 15). A complicated system of drains led into the
Tiber through several large main sewers. Of the latter the Cloaca Maxima is justly celebrated
as one of the best examples of early hydraulic construction. According to tradition it was
built in the time of the Tarquins. Starting in the Subura, it followed a very irregular
course, which was perhaps determined by the channel of a primitive brook
(
Mitth. 1891, p. 86). It passed beneath the Forum at the lowest point, under
the east end of the Basilica Iulia, and emptied into the Tiber by the Forum Boarium. The
channel of the Cloaca Maxima was paved with polygonal blocks of lava, and vaulted with large
voussoirs of a hard kind of tufa (
lapis Gabinus) laid without mortar; to give
greater solidity at the mouth, the vaulting there for some distance was composed of voussoirs
of peperino (
lapis Albanus) arranged in three rings. The dimensions of the
channel vary; where it is largest, at the opening into the Tiber, it is 14.75 feet wide and
18.96 feet high, measured from the pavement to the middle of the vault
(
Ant. Demkm. 1889, Taf. 37). See
Cloaca.
The architecture of Rome in the early days was unpretentious. Even the temples, built after
Etruscan patterns, were low and of common materials covered with stucco. The streets were
narrow and crooked; as a large amount of wood was used in construction, it is not surprising
that between the years B.C. 215 and 50 seven terrible conflagrations swept over the parts of
the city along the Tiber and about the Forum; inundations of the river also at times caused
great destruction. Not till near the end of the Republic did ambitious citizens direct their
energies towards the erection of fine public buildings, such as Pompey's theatre; some, in the
same period, as Lucullus and Aemilius Scaurus, lavished money upon palatial residences, which
they ornamented with costly marbles. Cicero, patriot that he was, found Rome inferior to Capua
not only in general appearance, but particularly in the matter of streets, and he speaks
contemptuously of the building materials—
in latere aut in caemento,
ex quibus urbs effecta est ( II. xlvii. 99;
Leg. Agr. II. xxxv. 96). He
himself had a house on the north slope of the Palatine which cost him 3,500,000 sesterces
(about $144,000); the house of Aemilius Scaurus is said to have been sold to the infamous
Clodius for the enormous sum of nearly 15,000,000 sesterces (about $615,000).
Iulius Caesar formed large plans for the beautifying of Rome, but in the midst of their
accomplishment his life was cut short. Augustus completed the edifices which his adoptive
father had left unfinished, and inaugurated a new epoch in the extent to which he carried not
only the erection of buildings, but also the restoration of earlier structures (the temples
restored by him numbered eighty-two) and the use of fine materials, especially marble and
travertine (
lapis Tiburtinus); his saying that he “found the city of
brick and left it of marble” was no idle boast (
Suet.
Aug. 28; cf. Mommsen,
Res Gestae Divi Aug. 19-21). His
example was followed by other emperors, among whom the greatest builders were Vespasian,
Titus, Trajan, and Hadrian; of lower rank than these as regards the architectural style,
though not the size, of their buildings (chiefly
Thermae), were Caracalla,
Diocletian, and Constantine. Roman architecture was at its best in the period from Augustus to
Hadrian.
The contributions of the Romans to the progress of the arts were greater in the field of
architecture than in any other. From the time of Sulla they freely adopted the architectural
forms of the Greeks; but with these they combined the extensive use of the round arch, and
gradually worked out a system which enabled them to erect immense structures, such as lay
within the range of neither the Greek nor the Etruscan architecture. Lacking the Greek
sensitiveness to perfect proportion,
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they relied, for effect, more upon massiveness than upon symmetry, and indulged in
greater richness of decoration than Greek taste would have allowed. Under the Empire they
ransacked the known world for the choicest marbles, as well as for the hard stones, the
granites, and porphyries; these they turned to account in every conceivable way, larger masses
being used for columns and other architectural members, thin slabs for incrustation, and small
fragments for mosaics. (See
Musivum Opus.)
Surfaces finished in stucco were decorated in brilliant colours, frequently with complicated
designs, sometimes with paintings of high merit (see
Pictura); bas-reliefs also were painted. In their adaptation of the Greek orders of
architecture the Romans made changes affecting alike the shaft, capital, and architrave. (See
Columna.) Borrowing also from the Greeks the plan
of the oblong temple and that of the hill-side theatre, they altered both; at the same time,
contrary to Greek practice, they raised their temples upon
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Temple of Vesta. (Restoration.)
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high foundations, and gave to their theatres a full elevation on the exterior. (See
Aedes;
Theatrum.) But apart from these, they so developed several architectural types as to
make them distinctively Roman; such were the
circus
(q.v.), the amphitheatre (see
Amphitheatrum),
the
basilica (q.v.), baths (see
Thermae), the triumphal arch (see
Arcus), the commemorative column (see
Columna Cochlis), the round tomb (see
Mausoleum;
Sepulcrum), and
the aqueduct, so far as this was constructed above ground on the principle of the arcade. The
Roman roads also, though in the modern view belonging rather to the domain of engineering than
to that of architecture, were equally characteristic (see
Via); and certain of their bridges, as that at Alcántara in Spain, command
universal admiration. No other city has been able to boast of so great a number and variety of
beautiful or impressive structures as Rome in the first half of the fourth century A.D.
According to a Catalogue dating from that period, the city contained 2
circuses, 2 amphitheatres, 3 theatres, 10 basilicas, 11 thermae, 36 arches of marble, 2
commemorative columns, 6 obelisks (imported from Egypt), 423 temples, 1790
domus—that is, extensive private residences, or palaces, of the
wealthy—besides which there were reckoned 46,602 tenements (
insulae); the open places were adorned with 2
colossi (probably
those of Nero and Augustus), 22 “great horses” (presumably counting not
merely the large equestrian statues, as that of Marcus Aurelius, now in the square of the
Capitol, but also groups of which horses formed a part, as those of the Dioscuri on the
Capitoline and the Quirinal), to which are added 80 gilded and 77 ivory statues of the gods,
no mention being made of the countless lesser statues on every side.
The number of obelisks in Rome is known to have been about twice that given in the
Catalogue. Of the 19 aqueducts by which, according to the Catalogue, the city was supplied
with water, part were branches. The principal aqueducts were: Aqua Appia, built in B.C. 312;
Anio Vetus, for the Esquiline Hill, B.C. 272; Aqua Marcia (B.C. 144) and Aqua Tepula (B.C.
125), extending to the Capitoline; three constructed in the reign of Augustus: Aqua Iulia
(B.C. 33), in the line of the Marcia and Tepula; Aqua Virgo (B.C. 19), for the Campus Martius;
and Aqua Alsietina (B.C. 2), for his
naumachia on the right bank of the
Tiber; Anio Novus, built by Caligula; Aqua Claudia, by Claudius; Aqua Traiana, by Trajan, the
last on the right bank; Aqua Severiana and Aqua Alexandrina, constructed to supply baths, the
former by Septimius, the latter by Alexander, Severus. According to Lanciani's calculations,
the amount of water brought in daily by the aqueducts in the time of Nerva (before the last
three named in the list were built) was about 23,839,793 cu. ft. (cu. m. 675,092; see his
I Comentarii di Frontino, p. 362). Three of the aqueducts have been repaired
and are in use—the Aqua Marcia, Aqua Virgo, and Aqua Traiana. See
Aquaeductus.
The names and dates of the more noteworthy buildings will now be given in connection with a
rapid survey of the City according to its main divisions, commencing with the Capitoline Hill.
On the northern summit of the Capitoline was the Stronghold (
Arx) of the
earlier city. Within
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1. Temple of Concord. 2. Temple of Saturn. 3. Temple of Castor. 4. Temple of Vesta. 5.
Probable location of the Temple of Ianus. 6. Prison—Carcer. 7. Probable location
of the Basilica Opimia. 8. Probable location of the Basilica Porcia. 9. Probable location of
the Curia Hostilia. 10. Curia Iulia. 11. Probable location of the Rostra before 44 B.C. 12.
Rostra, after 44 B.C. 13. Probable location of the Temple of Iupiter Stator. Plan of the
Capitol and Forum in time of the Republic.
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its walls were the Auguraculum, an open place where auspices were taken; the Temple of
Iuno Moneta, with which the Mint was connected; and a Temple of Concord, built in B.C. 217;
but their location is uncertain. On the southern summit was the most magnificent of all Roman
temples, that of Iupiter Optimus Maximus, called the Capitolium. It stood in an
area, on a high platform, and was nearly square, being Etruscan in plan
and style; the sum of the four sides measured perhaps 760 feet. The front part was a triple
colonnade; behind this were the three large
cellae, the middle one for
Iupiter, the other two for Minerva and Iuno. The original edifice is ascribed to the Tarquins,
but it was not dedicated till the first year of the Republic, B.C. 509. It became a repository
of the richest booty and votive offerings. In B.C. 83 it was burned to the ground; it was
rebuilt, with richer adornment, the second temple being dedicated in B.C. 69. Again filled
with treasures, it fell a prey to flames in A.D. 69. It was rebuilt a third time on the same
plan, but as a Corinthian hexastyle, only to be burned again in A.D. 80. It was restored with
great splendour, the fourth temple being dedicated by Domitian in A.D. 82. It was not again
destroyed by fire, but remained to be dismantled by plunderers.
The Capitol was reached from the Forum by a graded road (
Clivus Capitolinus,
paved in B.C. 174), from which a branch led to the Arx. Of the open places, shrines, and
private buildings on the Capitoline outside the Capitol and the Arx very little is known. The
Tarpeian Rock was on the southeast side. On the slope of the Capitoline overlooking the Forum
was the Tabularium, a depository for archives, erected in B.C. 78.
The northeast and southwest sides of the Forum in early times were lined with small shops
(
tabernae), which eventually were removed to make room for public
buildings. The very ancient shrine of Ianus stood somewhere near the middle of the northwest
side; the round Temple of Vesta at the southeast corner. The Palace of the Vestals
(
Atrium Vestae), southeast of the temple, was greatly changed by enlargements
and restorations; near it was the official residence of the Pontifex Maximus
(
Regia). In the vaults of the Temple of Saturn (dedicated B.C. 497) the public
treasure was kept (see
Aerarium); the eight Ionic
columns remaining belong to a later restoration. The three beautiful Corinthian columns still
standing on the foundation of the Temple of Castor (dedicated B.C. 484) date from a
restoration in B.C. 6. The Temple of Concord was likewise of early date (dedicated B.C. 366);
but the existing plan and fragments date from a remodelling of the edifice in B.C. 7. Under
the Empire temples were erected in honour of Iulius Caesar (
Templum Divi Iulii,
marking the spot where his body was burned, dedicated B.C. 29); of Vespasian (three Corinthian
columns remain); of Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius, dedicated to him also after his death in
A.D. 161 (now the Church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda); and of Romulus, the small son of
Maxentius, who died in A.D. 309; this last building, of circular form (now incorporated in the
Church of SS. Cosmas and Damian), lies just beyond the Temple of Faustina, northeast of the
Forum. In A.D. 367 a series of twelve chapels, containing gilded statues of the Olympian
divinities, was erected in the southwest corner (
Porticus Deorum Consentium).
The oldest of the basilicas was the Basilica Porcia, built by the elder Cato in B.C. 184;
this and the Basilica Opimia (B.C. 121) were removed, as the ground was needed for the
extensions of the Forum. The Basilica Fulvia et Aemilia, built in B.C. 179, north of the
shops, was extended afterwards to the edge of the Forum; as this side has not been excavated,
its foundations cannot be traced. The Basilica Sempronia (B.C. 170) was erected on the site of
the house of Scipio Africanus Maior, and was itself replaced by the magnificent Basilica
Iulia, which was begun by Iulius Caesar in B.C. 54 and completed by Augustus. See
Basilica.
The open space of the Forum was paved with large blocks of stone. Along the south side
passed the Holy Way (
Via Sacra), the course of which varied somewhat in
different periods. Across this, at the point where it entered the Forum (north of the
Regia), was the Arch of the Fabii (
Fornix Fabianus), erected in
B.C. 121; south of the Temple of Iulius Caesar was the Arch of Augustus (B.C. 19),
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The Roman Forum in the Time of the Empire.
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and at the upper end of the Basilica Iulia, the Arch of Tiberius (A.D.
16)—all these commemorating famous victories. The Arch of Septimius Severus (A.D.
203) is in a good state of preservation, though the six horses and the chariot which stood
upon it, with Victory placing a crown upon the head of Severus, have long since disappeared.
Several columns surmounted by statues stood in the Forum; the latest of them, the tasteless
Column of Phocas (A.D. 608), is still in place, without the image.
Near the northwest corner of the Forum was the only prison in Rome (
carcer), comprising a large upper and smaller lower dungeon, the latter of very ancient
construction. East of the prison was the open space of the
Comitium (q.v.). Here were the ancient Senate-house (
Curia
Hostilia) and the Speakers' Platform, called Rostra, because ornamented with the
beaks of the ships taken from the Antiates in B.C. 338. Both were removed by Caesar, who
commenced the erection of a new Senate-house (
Curia Iulia, finished by
Augustus) and the rebuilding of the Rostra at the upper end of the Forum; when the Rostra
began to be used in the new location is a matter of doubt. The Platform in its final form was
about 78 feet long, 33 feet wide, and 10 feet high; the top was adorned with statues. A second
Speakers' Platform (
Rostra Iulia) was erected in front of the Temple of Iulius
Caesar, forming part of the façade, and was ornamented with the beaks of ships
taken at the battle of Actium. Near the southwest corner of the Rostra was the Golden
Milestone (
Milliarium Aureum), erected by Augustus, from which distances were
calculated on the Roman roads; at the northwest corner Constantine set up the Umbilicus Romae,
in the form of a cone, as the ideal centre of the city and the Roman world. There is much
uncertainty in regard to the plan and location of several other structures about the Forum, as
the Secretarium Senatus and Graecostasis. Somewhere near the middle of the open space was the
Lacus Curtius, which appears to have become a dry
puteal by the time of
Augustus; near the Temple of Castor was the Lacus Iuturnae, which was still known in the
Middle Ages.
The first extension of the Forum, made by Iulius Caesar (
Forum Caesaris or
Forum Iulium, see Map of Rome), was east of the Arx; in the centre was a
Temple of Venus Genetrix, in front of which stood a bronze statue of Caesar's war-horse (
Suet.
Caes. 61). On the east side of this Augustus built a second extension
(
Forum Augusti), in which was the splendid Temple of Mars Ultor (dedicated
B.C. 2), adorned with costly works of art. Nearer the Forum Romanum Vespasian laid off a
similar area, and erected in it the magnificent Temple of Peace (
Templum
Pacis). This was connected with the forums of Caesar and Augustus by the Forum of
Nerva , which was planned and almost finished by his predecessor Domitian; the boundary-wall
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Restoration of the Forum.
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was richly ornamented with Corinthian columns and reliefs, and in it was a prostyle
hexastyle Temple of Minerva, also of the Corinthian order. The last and finest of the imperial
forums was that of Trajan, who cut away the ridge between the Capitoline and Quirinal to make
room for it. It was entered from the Forum of Augustus, through a high triumphal arch. From
this the visitor passed into an area with colonnades on either side, which opened out into two
semicircular extensions; at the upper end of the latter was the great Basilica Ulpia. Beyond
the Basilica was a small area in which rose the immense column of Trajan (without the base 97
feet,=100 Roman feet, high), adorned with reliefs celebrating his campaigns against Decebalus.
On either side of this were two buildings in which a large library was stored
(
Bibliotheca Ulpia); just beyond them Hadrian erected a temple in honour of
Trajan and Plotina.
The greater part of the Palatine Hill in the Republican period was given up to the
residences of wealthy citizens. There were, however, several
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Restoration of Hadrian's Mausoleum.
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temples the location of which, even now that a considerable portion of the hill has been
excavated, has not been determined with exactness. Somewhere on the northern side was the very
ancient Temple of Victory; farther down towards the Via Sacra lay the Temple of Iupiter
Stator. Of later date were the Temple of the Magna Mater (dedicated B.C. 191), and the Temple
of Iupiter Victor (see Plan), which seems to have been changed into a temple of the Sun by
Elagabalus. But these temples were eclipsed in splendour by the Temple of Apollo, dedicated
B.C. 28; the site of this, and of the library connected with it, has not yet been cleared.
Augustus, who was born on the Palatine, made it a place of imperial residence. His palace,
enlarged by the additions of his successors (
Domus Augustana), became the
nucleus of a complex of palatial edifices to the magnificence of which the world has elsewhere
afforded no parallel. (The arrangement in general, so far as the excavations have gone, may be
made out from the Plan.) Tiberius seems to have had a separate palace
before his father's death (
Domus Tiberiana). Caligula added to this; and,
utilizing the roofs of intermediate buildings, he made a bridge from the Palatine to the
Capitoline. Nero, after the nine-days fire in July, A.D. 64, extended his Golden House
(
Domus Aurea) over the Velia and even to the Esquiline; together with the
Palace on the Palatine it must have covered about a square mile, but the parts beyond the
Palatine were removed by the following emperors. The Stadium was probably built by Hadrian.
Septimius Severus extended the palace beyond the Stadium; at the southeast corner, overlooking
the Via Appia, he erected the
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Plan of the Palatine.
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Septizonium, a beautiful marble balcony in at least three stories. On the slope of
the Palatine at the middle of the south side was the Paedagogium, a school for the pages of
the imperial household.
North of the Palatine ran the Via Sacra, connecting at the east end with a street that
skirted the southeast side and led into the Via Appia near the Porta Capena. Across the Via
Sacra at the highest point of the Velia was the Arch of Titus, commemorating his victories
over the Jews in A.D. 70 (dedicated in A.D. 81 by Domitian). Near this was the magnificent
Temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian, with two great apsidal niches facing in opposite
directions (partly incorporated in the church of S. Francesca Romana). Further towards
the Forum was the Basilica of Constantine, the main part of which was erected by Maxentius
before B.C. 312; its remains are among the most impressive in Rome. At the end of the Via
Sacra the triumphal Arch of Constantine is still standing, not far from the Colosseum. See
Arcus.
The Colosseum (probably so named from the colossus of Nero, more than 100 feet high, which
stood near it) was commenced by Vespasian, and dedicated by Titus in A.D. 80, but it seems not
to have been entirely finished till later. It is in the form of an ellipse, the circuit of
which measures nearly one-third of a mile (1728 feet), the major axis 615 feet, the minor axis
510 feet; the area is about 5.7 acres. The four stories furnished seats for 87,000 spectators.
More ample still was the Circus Maximus, which was first provided with a permanent structure
by Caesar; his building was in three stories, the first of stone, the other two of wood, and
was about 2130 feet long, seating 150,000 spectators. This Circus was several times burned,
rebuilt, and enlarged; before A.D. 79 it accommodated 250,000 spectators, and at the beginning
of the fourth century its capacity is said to have reached the incredible number of 485,000.
See
Amphitheatrum.
The other great buildings in the eastern part of Rome were the Thermae
of Titus ( III.), erected in A.D. 80 on a part of the site of the Golden House. The Thermae of
Caracalla (
Thermae Antoninianae, Reg. XII.) could accommodate at one time 1600
bathers, and were of unparalleled magnificence. The quadrangular enclosure (see Map of Rome)
measures more than a fifth of a mile (1081 feet) on each side, and the ruins now have
something of the appearance of a great fortress. On the Quirinal (Reg. VI.) were the immense
Thermae of Diocletian (dedicated in A.D. 305), part of the remains of which have been turned
to use in modern edifices, and the Thermae of Constantine, which, though restored as late as
A.D. 443, have left few traces. See
Thermae.
The public edifices in the Campus Martius were numerous and important. Here was the Theatre
of Pompey (erected B.C. 55); with this was connected the Porticus Pompei, together with the
Exedra, in which stood the statue of Pompey mentioned in the narratives of the death of
Caesar. Nearer the Capitoline and the Tiber were the Theatre of
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The Palatine Hill as seen from the Capitoline (1893).
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Marcellus, of which an imposing section of exterior wall is still to be seen, and
the Theatre of Balbus, both dedicated in B.C. 11; among other buildings erected during the
reign of Augustus were the Porticus of Octavia and Porticus of Philippus, both named after
relatives of the emperor, the Thermae of Agrippa, and the original Pantheon. The Pantheon in
its present form, dating from the reign of Hadrian (though the inscription of Agrippa is still
on the front of the Portico), is not only in a better state of preservation than any other
Roman edifice, but ranks high among remarkable buildings. Its plan has the form of a circle
140 feet in diameter on the inside, with a rectangular portico sustained by sixteen Corinthian
columns of granite 39 feet high. Over the round structure, which is of brick, is a massive
dome 140 feet at its highest point above the paved floor; the building is lighted by an
aperture, 30 feet in diameter, at the centre of the dome. Near the Tiber, in the northern part
of the Campus Martius, was the huge Mausoleum of Augustus, the chambers of which were used as
burial-places for members of the imperial family down to Nerva. To his reign also
belonged the completion of the new Saepta, commenced by Iulius Caesar; this, originally an
open space marked off to facilitate voting by centuries, was now surrounded by marble
porticos, and provided with elaborate barriers of division. The Stadium, built by the emperor
Domitian for Greek games, had seats for 30,000 spectators; the Circus of Flaminius (B.C. 221)
was probably still larger. In the Campus Martius were many temples, early and late, as those
of Hope (
Templum Spei), of Neptune (eleven columns remain), and of the Egyptian
Isis. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, similar to that of Trajan, is well preserved; the
triumphal arches across the Via Lata have disappeared.
The famous Temple of Aesculapius, founded in B.C. 291, was on the island in the Tiber. On
the right bank of the river was a Circus, built for the most part by Caligula, but named after
Nero. East of this Hadrian erected his massive Mausoleum (now Castello di S. Angelo), in the
form of a drum of masonry, 240 feet in diameter, resting on a square base measuring 341 feet
on the sides; the whole structure was about 165 feet high, and on the top was a gilded statue
of the emperor. Near by he built a Circus.
Bibliography.—Indispensable for more than superficial
study of the subject are the publications devoted to the presentation and discussion of new
discoveries and the results of investigation:
Notizie degli Scavi, a monthly
report of all excavations and “finds” in Italian territory
(from
1876);
Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica comunale di Roma
(from 1873);
Monumenti antichi pubblicati per cura della R. Accademia dei
Lincei (from 1891; vol. i., e. g., contains
L'Itinerario di Einsiedeln e
l'Ordine di Benedetto Canonico, by Lanciani, and Mommsen's
Commentarium
Ludorum Saecularium Quintorum). Of especial value are the publications of the German
Archaeological Institute:
Mittheilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen
Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abtheilung (from 1886;
following the
Annali and
Bulletino, 1829-85);
Jahrbuch des K. D. Arch. Inst. (from 1886), with the
Archäologische Anzeiger (from 1886; following the
Archäologische Zeitung, 1843-85); and the
Antike
Denkmäler
(from 1886; following the
Monumenti Inediti, 1829- 1885).
The contributions of the French School at Rome appear in the
Mélanges
d'Archéologie et d'Histoire (from 1881).
Middleton's
Remains of Ancient Rome (2 vols. London, 1892; enlarged edition
of
Ancient Rome in 1885) and Burn's
Rome and the Campagna
(London, 1876; small edition, with the title
Ancient Rome and its
Neighbourhood, London, 1895) are attractive in appearance, but untrustworthy in regard
to details; of greater merit, so far as they go, are
The Roman Forum
(London, 1877) and
The Marvels of Rome (edition of the
Mirabilia
Urbis Romae, London, 1889), by F. M. Nichols; Hülsen's
Forum
Romanum (English edition, Rome, 1893) contains two admirable reconstructions;
worthy of recommendation also are the panorama by Bühlmann and Wagner,
Rom mit
dem Triumphzug des Kaisers Constantin im Jahre 312, with descriptive text by F. von
Reber
(Munich, 1890), and the reconstruction of the Baths of Diocletian by
Paulin,
Les Thermes de Dioclétien (Paris, 1890). There
is a succinct but clear description of the ruins at Rome in Baedeker's
Central
Italy and Rome (11th edition, Leipzig, 1893). An interesting account of late
discoveries is given by Lanciani in
Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent
Discoveries (Boston, 1888) and
Pagan and Christian Rome
(Boston, 1893). Prof. Lanciani is publishing a detail map of Rome, scale 1.1000; the
48 sheets appear in 8
fasciculi
(Milan; fasc. 1-3, 1893-95). An excellent brief handbook is Otto Richter's
Topographie der Stadt Rom (Nördlingen, 1889; reprinted from
Müller's
Handbuch der klass. Alterthumswissenschaft). Jordan's
Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum (Berlin, vol. i. pt. i. 1878,
pt. ii. 1885, vol. ii. 1871) is of much value; Gilbert's
Geschichte und
Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum (Leipzig, 3 pts. 1883, 1885, 1890) is
less satisfactory. Among later works on Roman architecture, Choisy,
L'Art de
Bâtir chez les Romains (Paris, 1873), and Durm,
Die Baukunst
der Römer (in his
Handbuch der Architektur, vol. ii.
Darmstadt, 1885), are worthy of special mention. The inscriptions of the city of Rome are
collected in vol. vi. of the
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. For the other
ancient sources, and for fuller reference to modern works (including collections of
engravings), the bibliographies at the beginning of the works by Richter, Burn, and Middleton,
cited above, may be consulted; and a review of the literature since 1887 by Hülsen
will be found in the
Mittheilungen, vols. iv., vi., vii., and viii.
