The northern neighbor of the
United States; discovered by
Jacques Cartier (q. v.) in 1534.
Its name is suposed to have been derived from the
Huron word
Kan-na-ta, signifying a collection of cabins, such as
Hochelaga.
No settlements were made there until the explorations of
Champlain about threefourths of a century later.
He established a semi-military and semi-religious colony
[
42]
at
Quebec, and from it Jesuit and other missions spread over the
Lake regions.
Then came the civil power of
France to lay the foundations of an empire, fighting one nation of Indians and making allies of another, and establishing a feudal system of government, the great land-holders being called
Seigneurs, who were compelled to cede the lands granted to them, when demanded by settlers, on fixed conditions.
They were not absolute proprietors of the soil, but had certain valuable privileges, coupled with prescribed duties, such as building mills, etc.
David Kertk, or
Kirk, a Huguenot refugee, received a royal commission from King Charles I. to seize the
French forts in
Acadia (q. v.), and on the river
St. Lawrence.
With a dozen ships he overcame the small French force at
Port Royal, and took possession of
Acadia in 1629.
Later in the summer he entered the
St. Lawrence, burned the hamlet of Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, and sent a summons for the surrender of
Quebec.
It was refused, and
Kirk resolved to starve out the garrison.
He cruised in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, and captured the transports conveying winter provisions for
Quebec.
The sufferings there were intense, but they endured them until August the next year, when, English ships-of-war, under a brother of
Admiral Kirk, appearing before
Quebec, instead of the expected supply-ships, the place was surrendered, and the inhabitants, not more than 100 in all, were saved from starvation.
By a treaty,
Canada was restored to the
French in 1632.
In the early history of the colony, the governors, in connection with the intendant, held the military and civil administration in their hands.
Jesuit and other priests became conspicuous in the public service.
Finally, when a bishop was appointed for
Quebec, violent dissensions occurred between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities.
Until the treaty of
Utrecht (1713),
Canada included all of present
British America, and more.
At that time
Hudson Bay and vicinity was restored to
England by Louis XIV.
Newfoundland and
Acadia (
Nova Scotia) were ceded to the
English, and all right to the
Iroquois country (New York) was renounced, reserving to
France only the valleys of the
St. Lawrence and the
Mississippi.
The easy conquest of
Louisburg revived a hope that
Canada might be conquered.
Governor Shirley proposed to the ministers to have the task performed by a colonial army alone.
They would not comply, for the colonists, thus perceiving their own strength, might claim
Canada by right of conquest, and become too independent; so they authorized an expedition for the purpose after the old plan of attacking that province by land and sea. An English fleet was prepared to go against
Quebec; a land force, composed of troops from
Connecticut, New York, and colonies farther south, gathered at
Albany, to march against
Montreal.
Governor Clinton assumed the chief command of the land expedition.
His unpopularity thwarted his plans.
The corporation of
Albany refused to furnish quarters for his troops, and his drafts on the
British treasury could not purchase provisions.
Meanwhile,
Massachusetts and
Rhode Island had raised nearly 4,000 troops, and were waiting for an English squadron.
Instead of a British armament, a French fleet of forty war vessels, with 3.000 veteran troops was coming over the sea.
New England was greatly alarmed.
It was D'Anville's armament, and it was dispersed by storms.
Ten thousand troops gathered at
Boston for its defence; the fort on
Castle Island was made very strong.
and the land expedition against
Montreal was abandoned.
When
Quebec fell, in the autumn of 1759, the
French held
Montreal, and were not dismayed.
In the spring of 1760,
Vaudreuil, the
governor-general of
Canada, sent
M. Levi, the successor of
Montcalm, to recover
Quebec.
He descended the
St. Lawrence with six frigates and a powerful land force.
The
English.
under
General Murray, marched out of
Quebec, and met him at
Sillery, 3 miles above the city; and there was fought (April 4) one of the most sanguinary battles of the war.
Murray was defeated.
He lost about 1,000 men, and all his artillery, but succeeded in retreating to the city with the remainder of his army.
Levi laid siege to
Quebec, and
Murray's condition was becoming critical, when an English squadron appeared (May 9) with reinforcements and provisions.
Supposing it to be the whole British fleet, Levi
[
43]
raised the siege (May 10), and fled to
Montreal, after losing most of his shipping.
Now came the final struggle.
Three armies were soon in motion towards
Montreal, where
Vaudreuil had gathered all his forces.
Amherst, with 10,000 English and provincial troops, and 1,000 Indians of the Six Nations, led by
Johnson, embarked at
Oswego, went down
Lake Ontario and the
St. Lawrence to
Montreal, where he met
Murray (Sept. 6), who had come up from
Quebec with 4,000 men. The next day,
Colonel Haviland arrived with 3,000 troops from
Crown Point, having taken possession of Isle aux Noix on the way. Resistance to such a crushing force would have been in vain, and, on Sept. 8, 1760,
Vaudreuil signed a capitulation surrendering
Montreal and all French posts in
Canada and on the border of the
Lakes to the
English.
General Gage was made military governor of
Montreal, and
General Murray, with 4,000 men, garrisoned
Quebec.
The conquest of
Canada was now completed, and by the
Treaty  |
|
Isle aux Noix, in the Sorel |
of
Paris in 1763, a greater portion of the
French dominions in
America fell into the possession of the
British crown.
When news of the surrender of
Ticonderoga (q. v.) reached
Governor Carleton, of
Canada, he issued a proclamation (June 9, 1775) in which he declared the captors to be a band of rebellious traitors; established martial law; summoned the
French peasantry to serve under the old colonial nobility; and instigated the
Indian tribes to take up the hatchet against the people of New York and
New England.
This proclamation neutralized the effects of the address of Congress to the Canadians.
The Quebec Act had soothed the
French nobility .and
Roman Catholic clergy.
The English residents were offended by it, and these, with the
Canadian peasantry, were disposed to take sides with the
Americans.
They denied the right of the
French nobility, as magistrates, or the seigneurs, to command their military services.
They welcomed invasion, but had not the courage to join the invaders.
At the same time, the
French peasantry did not obey the order of the
Roman Catholic bishop, which was sent to the several parishes, and read by the local clergy, to come out in defence of the
British government.
It was known that the bishop was a stipendiary of the crown.
There was a decided war spirit visible in the second Continental Congress, yet it was cautious and prudent.
Immediately after the seizure of
Ticonderoga and
Crown Point (May 10-12, 1775), the
Congress was urged to authorize the invasion and seizure of
Canada.
That body hoped to gain a greater victory by making the Canadians their friends and allies.
To this end they sent a loving address to them, and resolved, on June 1, “that no expedition or incursion ought to be undertaken or made by any colony or body of colonists against or into
Canada.”
The Provincial Congress of New York had expressly disclaimed any intention to make war on
Canada.
But
Gage's proclamation (June 10) that all
Americans in arms were rebels and traitors, and especially the battle of
Bunker (
Breed's)
Hill, made a radical change in the
[
44]
feelings of the people and in Congress.
It was also ascertained that
Governor Carleton had received a commission to muster and arm the people of the province, and to march them into any province in
America to arrest and put to death, or spare, “rebels” and other offenders.
Here was a menace that could not go unheeded.
Cols. Ethan Allen,
Benedict Arnold, and others renewed their efforts to induce the
Congress to send an expedition into
Canada.
The latter perceived the importance of securing
Canada either by alliance or by conquest.
At length the
Congress prepared for an invasion of
Canada.
Maj.-Gen. Philip Schuyler had been appointed to the command of the Northern Department, which included the whole province of New York.
Gen. Richard Montgomery was his chief lieutenant.
The regiments raised by the province of New York were put in motion, and
General Wooster, with
Connecticut troops, who were stationed at
Harlem, was ordered to
Albany.
The
New-Yorkers were joined by “
Green Mountain boys.”
Schuyler sent into
Canada an address to the inhabitants, in the
French language, informing them that “the only views of Congress were to restore to them those rights which every subject of the
British empire, of whatever religious sentiments he may be, is entitled to” ; and that, in the execution of these trusts, he had received the most positive orders to “cherish every
Canadian, and every friend to the cause of liberty, and sacredly to guard their property.”
It was now too late.
Had the
Congress listened to
Allen and
Arnold at the middle of May, and moved upon
Canada, its conquest would have been easy, for there were very few troops there.
When, near the close of August, an expedition against
Canada, under
Schuyler, was ready to move, preparations had been made to thwart it. The clergy and seigneurs of
Canada, satisfied with the
Quebec Act, were disposed to stand by the
British government.
The invading army first occupied Isle aux Noix, in the Sorel River; but the expedition made little advance beyond until November.
Colonel Allen had attempted to take
Montreal, without orders, and was made a prisoner and sent to
England.
A detachment of
Schuyler's army captured Fort Chambly, 12 miles from
St. Johns, on the
Sorel (Nov. 3), and, on the same day, the fort at the latter, which
Montgomery had besieged for some time, cut off from supplies, also surrendered.
Montreal fell before the patriots on the 13th, and
Montgomery, leaving a garrison at both places, prepared to move on
Quebec.
Meanwhile
Colonel Arnold had led an expedition by way of the
Kennebec and
Chaudiere rivers, through a terrible wilderness, to the banks of the
St. Lawrence (Nov. 9) opposite
Quebec.
He crossed the river, ascended to the
Plains of Abraham (Nov. 13), and, at the head of only 750 half-naked men—with not more than 400 muskets—demanded the surrender of the city.
Intelligence of an intended sortie caused
Arnold to move 20 miles farther up the river, where he was soon joined by
Montgomery.
The combined forces returned to
Quebec, and began a siege.
At the close of the year (1775), in an attempt to take the city by storm, the invaders were repulsed, and
Montgomery was killed.
Arnold took the command, and was relieved by
General Wooster, in April (1776). A month later,
General Thomas took command, and, hearing of the approach of a large armament, land and naval, to
Quebec, he retreated up the river.
Driven from one post to another, the
Americans were finally expelled from
Canada, the wretched remnant of the army, reduced by disease, arriving at
Crown Point in June, 1776.
The American Board of War,
General Gates president, arranged a plan, late in 1777, for a winter campaign against
Canada, and appointed
Lafayette to the command.
The
Marquis was cordially received at
Albany by
General Schuyler, then out of the military service.
General Conway, who had been appointed inspector-general of the army, was there before him.
Lafayette was utterly disappointed and disgusted by the lack of preparation and the delusive statements of
Gates.
“I do not believe,” he wrote to
Washington, “I can find 1,200 men fit for duty —and the quarter part of these are naked—even for a summer campaign.”
The
Marquis soon found the whole affair to be only a trick of
Gates to detach him from
Washington.
General Schuyler had, in a long letter to Congress (Nov. 4,
[
45]
1777), recommended a winter campaign against
Canada, but it was passed unnoticed by the
Congress, and
Gates appropriated the thoughts as his own in forming the plan, on paper, which he never meant to carry out.
Another campaign for liberating
Canada from British rule was conceived late
in 1778.
From
Boston,
D'Estaing, in the name of Louis XVI., had summoned the Canadians to throw off British rule.
Lafayette exhorted (December) the barbarians of
Canada to look upon the
English as their enemies.
The Congress became inflamed with zeal for the projected measure, formed a plan, without consulting a single military officer, for the “emancipation of
Canada,” in co-operation with an army from
France.
One American detachment from
Pittsburg was to capture
Detroit; another from
Wyoming was to seize
Niagara; a third from the
Mohawk Valley was to capture
Oswego; a fourth from
New England was to enter
Montreal by way of the
St. Francis; a fifth to guard the approaches from
Quebec; while to
France was assigned the task of reducing
Halifax and
Quebec.
Lafayette offered to use his influence at the French Court in furtherance of this grand scheme; but the cooler judgment and strong common-sense of
Washington interposed the objection that the part which the
United States had to perform in the scheme was far beyond its resources.
It was abandoned, as was another scheme for a like result, early in the year.
The first important military movement after the declaration of war in 1812 was an attempt to conquer
Canada by an invasion of its western border on the
Detroit River.
It then consisted of two provinces —
Lower Canada, with a population of 300,000, mostly of French origin, and
Upper Canada, with a population of 100,000, composed largely of American loyalists and their descendants.
The regular military force in both provinces did not exceed 2,000 men, scattered over a space of 1,200 miles from
Quebec to the foot of
Lake Superior.
Sir George Prevost was then governor-general, with his residence at
Montreal.
To enter the province from the States, a water-barrier had to be crossed, while the
American frontier was destitute of roads, infected with summer fevers, and sparsely settled.
William Hull, a soldier of the Revolution, then governor of
Michigan Territory, was consulted about an invasion of
Canada, while on a visit at
Washington.
He insisted that before such an enterprise should be undertaken a naval control of
Lake Erie should be acquired, and not less than 3,000 troops should be provided for the invasion.
He accepted the commission of brigadier-general with the special object in view of protecting his territory from the
Indian allies of the
British, yet, by orders of the government, he prepared to invade
Canada.
Governor Meigs, of
Ohio, called for troops to assemble at
Dayton, and volunteers flocked thither in considerable numbers.
There
General Hull took command of them (May 25, 1812), and they started off in good spirits for their march through the wilderness.
It was a perilous and most fatiguing journey.
On the broad morasses of the summit lands of
Ohio,
Hull received a despatch from the War Department urging him to press on speedily to
Detroit, and there await further orders.
When he reached the navigable waters of the
Maumee, his beasts of burden were
[
46]
so worn down by fatigue that he despatched for
Detroit, in a schooner, his own baggage and that of most of his officers; also all of his hospital stores, intrenching tools, and a trunk containing, his most valuable military papers.
The wives of three of his officers, with thirty soldiers to protect the schooner, also embarked in her. In a smaller vessel the invalids of the army were conveyed.
Both vessels arrived at the site of
Toledo on the evening of July 1.
The next day, when near
Frenchtown (afterwards
Monroe),
Hull received a note from the postmaster at
Cleveland announcing the declaration of war. It was the first intimation he had received of that important event.
In fact, the
British at Fort Malden (now
Amherstburg) heard of the declaration before
Hull did, and captured his schooner, with all its precious freight.
The commander at
Malden had been informed of it, by express, as early as June 30—two days before it reached
Hull.
The latter pressed forward, and encamped near
Detroit on July 5.
The
British were then casting up intrenchments at
Sandwich on the opposite side of the
Detroit River.
There
Hull awaited further orders from his government.
His troops, impatient to invade
Canada, had evinced a mutinous spirit, when he received orders to “commence operations immediately,” and, if possible, take possession of Fort Malden.
At dawn on the morning of July 12, the greater part of his troops had crossed the
Detroit River, and were on
Canadian soil.
Hull issued a proclamation to the Canadians, assuring them of protection in case they remained quiet.
Many of the
Canadian militia deserted the
British standard.
Hull advanced towards
Malden (July 13). After a successful encounter with British and Indians he fell back to
Sandwich, without attacking
Malden.
His troops were disappointed and mutinous.
Then information came of the capture of
MacKINAWinaw (q. v.) by the
British.
News also came that
General Proctor, of the
British army, had arrived at
Malden with reinforcements.
This was followed by an intercepted despatch from the northwest announcing that 1.200 white men and several hundred Indians were coming down to assist in the defence of
Canada..
General Brock was approaching from the east, with a force gathered on his way. These events, and other causes, impelled
Hull to recross the river to
Detroit with his army, and take shelter in the fort there (Aug. 8, 1812). The
British congregated in force at
Sandwich, and from that point opened a cannonade upon the fort at
Detroit.
On Sunday morning, the 16th, the
British crossed the river to a point below
Detroit, and moved upon the fort.
Very little effort was made to defend it, and, on that day,
Hull surrendered the fort, army, and
Territory of Michigan into the hands of the
British.
See
Detroit;
Hull, William.
On Oct. 17, 1813,
General Harrison, of the United States army, and
Commodore Perry, commander of the fleet on
Lake Erie, issued a proclamation, stating that, by the combined operations of the land and naval forces of the
United States, British power had been destroyed within the upper districts of
Canada, which was in quiet possession of United States troops.
They therefore proclaimed that the rights and privileges of the inhabitants and the laws and customs of the country, which were in force before the arrival of the conquerors, should continue to prevail, and that all magistrates and other civil officers might resume their functions, after taking an oath of fidelity to the United States government so long as the troops should remain in possession of the country.
At the opening of the third year of the second war for independence, a favorite project with the United States government was the conquest of
Canada.
The principal military forces in
Upper Canada were under
Lieutenant-General Drummond.
When the Army of the
North, commanded by
Major-General Brown, reached the
Niagara frontier,
Drummond's headquarters were at
Burlington Heights, at the western end of
Lake Ontario.
General Riall was on the
Niagara River, at
Fort George and
Queenston; but when lie heard of the arrival of the
Americans at
Buffalo, under
General Scott, he advanced to
Chippewa and established a fortified camp.
At the close of June,
General Brown arrived at
Buffalo, and assumed chief command, and, believing his army to be strong enough, he proceeded to invade
Canada.
His army consisted of two
[
47]
brigades, commanded respectively by
Generals Scott and
Ripley, to each of which was attached a train of artillery, commanded by
Capt. N. Towson and
Maj. J. Hindman.
He had also a small corps of cavalry, under
Capt. S. D. Harris.
These regulars were well disciplined and in high spirits.
There were also volunteers from
Pennsylvania and New York, 100 of them mounted, and nearly 600
Seneca Indians—almost the entire military force of the Six Nations remaining in the
United States.
These had been stirred to action by the venerable
Red Jacket, the great
Seneca orator.
The volunteers and Indians were under the chief command of
Gen. Peter B. Porter, then quartermastergeneral of the New York militia.
Major McRee, of
North Carolina, was chief-engineer, assisted by
Maj. E. D. Wood.
On the
Canada shore, nearly opposite
Buffalo, stood
Fort Erie, then garrisoned by 170 men, under the command of
Major Buck.
On July 1
Brown received orders to cross the
Niagara, capture
Fort Erie, march on
Chippewa, menace
Fort George, and, if he could have the co-operation of
Chauncey's fleet, to seize and fortify
Burlington Heights.
Accordingly,
Brown arranged for
General Scott and his brigade to cross on boats and land a mile below the fort, while
Ripley, with his brigade, should be landed a mile above it. This accomplished, the boats were to return and carry the remainder of the army, with its ordnance and stores, to the
Canada shore.
The order for this movement was given on July 2.
It was promptly obeyed by
Scott, and tardily by
Ripley, on the 3d.
When
Scott had pressed forward to invest the fort, he found
Ripley had not crossed, and no time was lost in crossing the ordnance and selecting positions for batteries.
These preparations alarmed the garrison, and the fort, which was in a weak condition, was surrendered.
Nearly 200 men, including officers, became prisoners of war, and were sent across the river.
By an act of the Imperial Parliament, in 1791,
Canada was divided into two provinces,
Upper Canada and
Lower Canada, and each had a parliament or legislature of its own. An imperial act was passed in 1840 to unite the two provinces under one administration and one legislature.
Antecedent political struggles had taken place, which culminated in open insurrection in 1837-38.
A movement for a separation of the Canadas from the crown of
Great Britain, and their political independence, was begun simultaneously in Upper and
Lower Canada in 1837.
In the former province, the most conspicuous leader was
William Lyon McKenzie, a Scotchman, a journalist of rare ability and a great political agitator; in the lower province, the chief leader was
Joseph Papineau, a large land-owner, and a very influential man among the
French inhabitants.
Both leaders were republican in sentiment.
The movements of the revolutionary party were well planned, but local jealousies prevented unity of action, and the effort failed.
It was esteemed highly patriotic, and elicited the warmest sympathy of the
American people, especially of those of the
Northern States.
Banded companies and individuals joined the “rebels,” as they were called by the
British government, and “patriots” by their friends; and so general became the active sympathy on the northern frontier, that peaceful relations between the
United States and
Great Britain were endangered.
President Van Buren issued a proclamation, calling upon all persons engaged in the schemes of invasion of the
Canadian territory to abandon the design, and warning them to beware of the penalties that must assuredly follow such infringement of international laws.
In December, 1837, a party of sympathizing
Americans took possession of
Navy Island, belonging to
Canada, in the
Niagara River, about 2 miles above the falls.
They mustered about 700 men, well provisioned, and provided with twenty pieces of cannon.
They had a small steamboat named the
Caroline to ply between the island and
Schlosser, on the
American side.
On a dark night a party of
Canadian royalists crossed the river, cut the
Caroline loose from her moorings, and set her on fire.
She went down the current and over the great cataract in full blaze.
It is supposed some persons were on board of her.
Gen. Winfield Scott was finally sent to the northern frontier to preserve order, and was assisted by a proclamation by the governor of New York.
Yet secret
[
48]
associations, known as “Hunters' Lodges,” continued quite active for some time.
Against the members of these lodges,
President Tyler issued an admonitory proclamation, which prevented further aggressive movements.
For four years this ominous cloud hung upon our horizon.
It disappeared in 1842, when the leaders of the movement were either dead or in exile.
In 1841 Upper and
Lower Canada were united for purposes of government, the system professedly modified after that of
Great Britain.
In 1857
Ottawa was selected as the permanent seat of government for
Canada, and costly public buildings were erected there.
By act of the Imperial Parliament, which received the royal assent March 28, 1867, the provinces of Upper and
Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia were connected and made one nation, under the general title of “The Dominion.”
Upper Canada was named “
Ontario,” and
Lower Canada “
Quebec.”
Provision was made for the future admission of
Prince Edward Island, the
Hudson Bay Territory,
British Columbia, and
Newfoundland, with its dependency,
Labrador.
In the new government the executive authority is vested in the
Queen, and her representative in the Dominion is the
acting governor-general, who is advised and aided by a privy council of fourteen members, constituting the ministry, who must be sustained by a Parliamentary majority.
There is a Parliament composed of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Commons.
According to the census of 1891 the population of the Dominion, by provinces, was as follows:
| Ontario | 2,114,321 |
| Quebec | 1,488,535 |
| Nova Scotia | 450,396 |
| New Brunswick | 321.263 |
| Manitoba | 152,506 |
| British Columbia | 98,173 |
| Prince Edward Island | 109,078 |
| Northwest Territories | 98,967 |
| ———— |
| Total | 4,833,239 |
Official statistics for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1S99, contained the following general items: Imports of merchandise, $162,764,308; exports, $158,896,905, of which $137,360,792 represented
Canadian productions; gross debt, $345,160,903; assets, $78,886,364; net debt, $266,274,539; revenue, $46,741,250; expenditure, $41,903,501; mileage of railways in operation, 17,250; capital of chartered banks, $63,674,085; assets, $408,936,411; liabilities, $316,330,478; and number of post-office savings-banks, 838, with depositors, 142,141, and total balances, $34,771,605. See
Anglo-American commission. 
