FORMATION OF WORDS
[*] 227.
All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element
significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the
meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the
formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in
fact,
words (since roots and stems are
significant elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then
brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. The gradual process
is seen in
sea voyage, sea-nymph,
seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears
as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must
antedate inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from
nouns or from verbs, but from
stems which were
neither, because they were in fact both; for the distinction between
noun-stems and verb-stems had not yet been made.
After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred
words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the
primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were
thought to be
derived. Such supposed processes of
formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way
new modes of derivation arose. Thus new adjectives
were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjectives from
verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.
In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became
confused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were
often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were
assigned to nouns.
Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of
use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives
survive of which the Primitive is lost.
Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps
in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives
occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.
ROOTS AND STEMS
[*] 228.
Roots
1 are of two kinds:—
-
Verbal, expressing ideas of action or
condition (sensible phenomena).
-
Pronominal, expressing ideas of position
and direction.
From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain
particles derived from pronominal roots.
[*] 229.
Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them. They are of
two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-stems) and (2)
Verb-stems.
[*] Note.--Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p.
163), and in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded;
but in general they were treated as distinct.
[*] 230.
Words are formed by inflection: (1) from roots inflected as stems; (2)
from derived stems (see § 232).
[*] 231.
A root used as a stem may appear—
[*] a.
With a short vowel: as,
duc-is
(
dux
), DUC;
nec-is (
nex
);
i-s,
i-d
. So in verbs: as,
es-t
,
fer-t
(cf. § 174. 2).
[*] b.
With a long vowel
2: as,
lūc-is (
lūx
), LUC;
pāc-is
(
pāx
). So in verbs:
dūc-ō
,
ī-s for †
eis,
from
eō
,
īre;
fātur from
fārī
.
[*] c.
With reduplication: as,
fur-fur,
mar-mor
,
mur-mur. So in verbs:
as,
gi-gnō
(root GEN),
si-stō
(root STA).
DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES
[*] 232.
Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems by means of
suffixes. These are:—
- Primary: added to the root, or (in later times by analogy)
to verbstems.
- Secondary: added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem.
Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal
roots (§ 228. 2), but a
few are of doubtful origin.
[*] Note 1.--The distinction between primary and secondary
suffixes, not being original (see § 227), is continually lost sight of in
the development of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as
secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in
hosticus
(hosti +
cus) the suffix -cus, originally ko-
(see § 234. 2.12)
primary, as in
paucus
, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to
form derivatives; but in
pudīcus
,
aprīcus
, it is treated as primary again, because these words
were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English
-able was borrowed as a primary
suffix (tolerable, eatable), but
also makes forms like clubbable,
salable; -some is properly a secondary
suffix, as in toilsome,
lonesome, but makes also such words as
meddlesome, venturesome.
[*] Note 2.--It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the
derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will
usually be given.
Primary Suffixes
[*] 233.
The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of
Primary Suffixes, are few. For—
- Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed
by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective
lone-ly-some-ish. meaning nothing
more than lone, lonely,
or lonesome.
- By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes
were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation.
Thus,—
A word like
mēns,
mentis
, by the suffix
ōn-
(
nom.
-ō), gave
mentiō
, and this, being divided into
men +
tiō, gave rise to a new type of abstract
nouns in
-tiō: as,
lēgā-tiō,
embassy.
A word like
audītor, by the suffix
io- (
nom.
-ius), gave rise to adjectives like
audītōr-ius, of which the
neuter (
audītōrium
) is used to denote the
place
where the action of the verb is performed. Hence
tōrio- (
nom.
-tōrium), N.,
becomes a regular noun-suffix (§ 250.
a).
So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix
-
ation, and with this is made
starvation, though there is no such word as
starvate.
[*] 234.
Examples of primary stem-suffixes are:—
I. Vowel suffixes:—
-
o- (M., N.), ā- (F.), found in nouns and adjectives
of the first two declensions: as,
sonus
,
lūdus
,
vagus
,
toga
(root TEG).
-
i-, as in
ovis
, avis; in
Latin frequently changed, as in
rūpēs, or lost, as
inscobs (
scobis
, root SCAB).
-
u-, disguised in most adjectives by
an additional i, as
insuā-vis (for
†suādvis, instead of
†suā-dus, cf. ἡδύς),
ten-uis
(root TEN in
tendō
), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth
declension, as
acus
(root AK,
sharp, in ācer,
aciēs
, ὠκύς),
pecū
,
genū
.
II. Suffixes with a consonant:—
-
to- (M., N.), tā- (F.), in the regular perfect
passive participle, as
tēctus
, tēctum; sometimes with an
active sense, as in
pōtus
, prānsus; and found in a few
words not recognized as participles, as
pūtus
(cf.
pūrus
),
altus
(
alō
).
-
ti- in abstracts and rarely in
nouns of agency, as
messis
,
vestis
,
pars
, mēns. But in many
thei is lost.
-
tu- in abstracts (including
supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as
āctus
,
lūctus
.
-
no- (M., N.), nā- (F.), forming perfect participles
in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like
participial meaning, which often become nouns, as
māgnus
,
plēnus
,
rēgnum
.
-
ni-, in nouns of agency and
adjectives, as
īgnis
,
sēgnis
.
-
nu-, rare, as in
manus
, pīnus,
cornū
.
-
mo- (mā-), with various meanings, as
inanimus,
almus
,
fīrmus
,
forma
.
-
vo- (vā-) (commonly uo-, uā-),
with an active or passive meaning, as in
equus
(
equos
),
arvum
,
cōnspicuus
,
exiguus
,
vacīvus
(
vacuus
).
-
ro- (rā-), as in
ager
(stem (
ag-ro-
), integer (cf.
intāctus
),
sacer
,
plērī-que
(cf. plēnus,
plētus).
-
lo- (lā-), as in caelum (for †
caed-lum
), chisel,
exemplum
,
sella
(for †
sedla
).
-
yo- (yā-), forming gerundives in other
languages, and in Latin making adjectives and abstracts,
including many of the first and fifth declensions, as
eximius
,
audācia
,
Flōrentia
,
perniciēs
.
-
ko- (kā-), sometimes primary, as in
paucī
(cf. παῦρος),
locus
(for
stlocus
). In many cases the vowel of this termination is
lost, leaving a consonant stem:
as,apex, cortex,
loquāx
.
-
en- (on-, ēn-,
ōn-), in nouns of
agency and abstracts: as,
aspergō
,
compāgē
(-ĭnis),
gerō
(-ōnis).
-
men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself: as,
agmen flūmen
,
fulmen
.
-
ter- (tor-, tēr-,
tōr-, tr-), forming nouns of agency: as,
pater
(i.e. protector),
frāter
(i.e. supporter),
ōrātor.
-
tro-, forming nouns of means: as,
claustrum
(CLAUD),
mūlctrum
(MULG).
-
es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into
concretes: as, genus (
generis
),
tempus
(see § 15.
4). The infinitive in -ere (as in
reg-ere
) is a locative of this stem ((--er-e for
†-es-i).
-
nt- (ont-, ent-), forming
present active participles: as,
legēns
, with some adjectives from roots unknown: as,
frequēns
,
recēns
.
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the
Indo-European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as
living formations in the Latin.
Significant Endings
[*] 235.
Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of
compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less
consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called
Significant Endings.
They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (including Names
of Actions); (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
[*] Note.--There is really no difference in
etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some
formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as nouns
(§ 20. b. N. 2).
DERIVATION OF NOUNS
Nouns of Agency
[*] 236.
Nouns of Agency properly denote the
agent or
doer of an action. But they include
many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and
also many words used as adjectives.
[*] a.
Nouns denoting the
agent or
doer of an action are formed from roots or
verb-stems by means of the suffixes—
-tor (
-sor), M.;
-trīx,
F.
|
can-tor, can-trīx, singer;
|
can-ere (root CAN), to
sing.
|
|
vic-tor, vic-trīx, conqueror
(victorious); |
vinc-ere (VIC), to
conquer.
|
|
tōn-sor
(for †
tond-tor
),
tōns-trīx
(for |
| †
tond-trīx
), hair-cutter;
|
tond-ēre (TOND as
root), to shear.
|
|
petī-tor,
candidate;
|
pet-ĕre (PET;
petī- as stem),
to seek
|
By analogy
-tor is sometimes added to
noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs: as,
viā-tor,
traveller,
from
via,
way (but cf.
the verb
inviō
).
[*] Note 1.--The
termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as
the supine ending -tum (-sum), and is added to the same form of
root or verb-stem as that ending. The stem-ending is tōr- (§ 234. 2.15), which is shortened in the
nominative.
[*] Note 2.--The feminine
form is always -trīx.
Masculines in -sor lack the
feminine, except
expulsor
(
expultrīx
) and
tōnsor
(
tōnstrīx
).
[*] b.
t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in
-es (
-itis,
-etis; stem
it-,
et-）
descriptive of a character:—
-
prae-stes, -stitis
, (verb-stem from root STA,
stāre,
stand), guardian.
-
teges, -etis
(verb-stem tege-,
cf. tegō,
cover), a coverer, a mat.
-
pedes, -itis
(
pēs
, ped-is,
foot, and I, root of īre, go),
foot-soldier.
[*] c.
-ō (genitive
-ōnis, stem
ōn
)-, M., added to verb-stems
3 indicates a person
employed in some specific art or trade:—
-
com-bibō
(BIB as root in
bibō
, bibere,
drink), a pot-companion.
-
gerō, -ōnis
(GES in
gerō
, gerere,
carry), a carrier.
[*] Note.--This termination
is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal
characteristics (cf. § 255).
Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns
[*] 237.
Names of Actions are confused, through their terminations, with real
abstract nouns (names of
qualities), and
with concrete nouns denoting
means and
instrument.
They are also used to express the
concrete
result of an action (as often in English).
Thus
legiō
is literally
the act of
collecting, but comes to mean
legion
(the body of soldiers collected); cf.
levy
in English.
[*] 238.
Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from roots and
verb-stems by means of the endings—
[*] a.
Added to roots or forms conceived as roots—
|
tim-or, fear;
|
timēre, to
fear.
|
|
am-or, love;
|
amāre, to
love.
|
|
sēd-ēs,
seat;
|
sedēre, to
sit.
|
|
caed-ēs,
slaughter;
|
caedere, to
kill.
|
|
genus, birth,
race;
|
GEN, to be
born (root of gignō, bear). |
[*] Note.--Many nouns of
this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots: as
facinus from a supposed root
FACIN.
[*] b.
Apparently added to roots or verb-stems—
|
leg-iō, a
collecting (levy), a
legion;
|
legere, to
collect.
|
|
reg-iō, a
direction, a region;
|
regere, to
direct.
|
|
vocā-tiō,
a calling;
|
vocāre, to
call.
|
|
mōlī-tiō, a
toiling;
|
mōlīrī, to
toil.
|
|
scrīp-tūra,
a writing;
|
scrībere, to
write.
|
|
sēn-sus (for
†
sent-tus
), feeling;
|
sentīre, to
feel.
|
[*] Note 1.--
-tiō, -tūra, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as
-tor, with the same phonetic
change (cf. § 236.
a. N. 1). Hence they are
conveniently associated with the supine stem (see §
178). They sometimes form
nouns when there is no corresponding verb in use: as, senātus, senate
(cf.
senex
); mentiō,
mention (cf.
mēns
); fētūra, offspring
(cf.
fētus
); litterātūra,
literature (cf.
litterae
); cōnsulātus,
consulship (cf.
cōnsul
).
[*] Note 2.--Of these
endings, -tus was originally
primary (cf. § 234.
2.3.); -iō is a compound
formed by adding ōn- to a
stem ending in a vowel (originally i): as,
diciō (cf. -dicus and
dicis
); -tiō is a
compound formed by adding ōn- to stems in ti-: as,
gradātiō
(cf.
gradātim
); -tūra is
formed by adding -ra, feminine of
-rus, to stems in tu-: as,
nātūra
from nātus;
statūra from
status (cf.
figūra
, of like meaning, from a simple u<*>
stem, †figu-s; and
mātūrus,
Mātūta).
[*] 239.
Nouns denoting
acts, or
means and
results of acts, are
formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the
suffixes—
-men, N.; -mentum, N.; -mōnium, N.; -mōnia, F.
|
ag-men, line of march,
band;
|
AG, root of agere, to lead.
|
|
regi-men, rule;
regi-mentum,
rule;
|
regi- (rege-), stem of regere, to direct.
|
|
certā-men,
contest, battle;
|
certā-, stem of
certāre,
to contend.
|
So
-mōnium and
-mōnia are also used as secondary, forming
nouns from other nouns and from adjectives: as,
sāncti-mōnia,
sanctity (
sānctus,
holy);
mātrimōnium,
marriage (
māter,
mother.）
[*] Note.--Of these endings,
-men is primary (cf. §
234. 2.14); -mentum is a compound of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the
language than -men: as, mōmen, movement
(Lucr.); mōmentum (later). So
elementum
is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's
(letters of the alphabet), changed to
elementa
along with other nouns in -men. -mōnium
and -mōnia were
originally compound secondary suffixes formed from mōn- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with
mo-. Thus
almus
(stem
almo-),
fostering;
Almōn, a river near Rome;
alimōnia,
support. But the
last was formed directly from
alō
when
-mōnia had
become established as a supposed primary suffix.
[*] 240.
Nouns denoting
means or
instrument are formed from roots and verb-stems (rarely
from noun-stems) by means of the neuter suffixes—
-bulum,
-culum,
-brum,
-crum,
-trum
|
pā-bulum,
fodder;
|
pāscere, to
feed.
|
|
sta-bulum,
stall;
|
stāre, to
stand.
|
|
vehi-culum,
wagon;
|
vehere, to
carry.
|
|
candēlā-brum,
candlestick;
|
candēla,
candle (a secondary formation). |
|
sepul-crum,
tomb;
|
sepelīre, to
bury.
|
|
claus-trum
(†
claud-trum
), bar;
|
claudere, to
shut.
|
|
arā-trum,
plough;
|
arāre, to
plough.
|
[*] Note.--
-trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§ 234. 2.15), with the stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem
clo- for tlo-) appears to be related; -culum is the same as -clum; -bulum contains
lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related.
[*] a.
A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns
and adjectives:—
|
fā-bula,
tale;
|
fārī,
to speak.
|
|
rīdi-culus,
laughable;
|
rīdēre,
to laugh.
|
|
fa-ber, smith;
|
facere, to make.
|
|
late-bra,
hiding-place;
|
latēre, to
hide.
|
|
tere-bra, auger;
|
terere, to bore.
|
|
mulc-tra,
milk-pail;
|
mulgēre, to
milk.
|
[*] 241.
Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from noun-stems,
are formed by means of the secondary feminine suffixes—
-ia (
-iēs),
-tia
(
-tiēs),
-tās,
-tūs,
-tūdō
|
audāc-ia,
boldness;
|
audāx,
bold.
|
|
pauper-iēs,
poverty;
|
pauper, poor.
|
|
trīsti-tia,
sadness;
|
trīstis,
sad.
|
|
sēgni-tiēs,
laziness;
|
sēgnis,
lazy.
|
|
boni-tās,
goodness;
|
bonus, good.
|
|
senec-tūs,
age;
|
senex, old.
|
|
māgni-tūdō,
greatness;
|
māgnus,
great.
|
- In stems ending in o- or
ā- the stem-vowel is
lost before -ia (as
superb-ia
) and appears as i before -tās, -tūs, -tia
(as in
boni-tās
, above).
- Consonant stems often insert i before
-tās: as,
loquāx
(stem loquāc-),loquāci-tās;
buthones-tās,mâies-tās
(as if from old adjectives in -es),ūber-tās,
volup-tās
. o after i is changed
toe: as,
pius
(stem pio-),pie-tās;
socius
, socie-tās.
[*] a.
In like manner
-dō and
-gō (F.) form abstract
nouns, but are associated with verbs and apparently added to
verb-stems:—
-
cupī-dō,
desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem
cupī-).
-
dulcē-dō,
sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem
dulcē-, cf.
dulcē-scō.
-
lumbā-gō,
lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from
†lumbō, -āre.
[*] Note.--Of these,
-ia is inherited as secondary
(cf. § 234. 2.11).
-tia is formed by adding
-ia to stems with a t-suffix: as,
mīlitia, from
mīles (stem mīlit-);
molestia
from molestus;
clēmentia from clēmēns; whence by
analogy,
mali-tia
,
avāri-tia
. -tās is
inherited, but its component parts, tā- + ti-,
are found as suffixes in the same sense: as,
senecta
from senex;
sēmen-tis from
sēmen. -tūs is tū- + ti-, cf.
servitū-dō
. -dō and
-gō appear only with
long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy; but
-dō is do- + ōn-: as,
cupidus
, cupīdō;
gravidus,
gravēdō
(cf.
gravē-scō
);
albidus
, albēdō (cf.
albēscō
); formidus,
hot,
formīdō
(cf.
formīdulōsus
), (hot flash?) fear;
-gō is possibly co- + ōn-; cf.
vorāx
,
vorāgō
, but cf.
Cethēgus
. -tūdō is compounded of -dō with tu-stems, which acquire a long vowel from
association with verb-stems in u-
(cf.
volūmen
, from
volvō
): as,
cōnsuētū-dō
,
valētū-dō
, habitū-dō; whence
servitūdō
(cf.
servitūs
,
tūtis
).
[*] b.
Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting
offices and
groups,
are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by means of
the suffixes—
-ium,
-tium
|
hospit-ium,
hospitality, an inn;
4
|
hospes (gen.
hospit-is
), a guest.
|
|
collēg-ium,
colleagueship, a college;
|
collēga, a
colleague.
|
|
auspic-ium,
soothsaying, an omen;
|
auspex (gen.
auspic-is
), a soothsayer.
|
|
gaud-ium, joy;
|
gaudēre, to
rejoice.
|
|
effug-ium,
escape;
|
effugere, to
escape.
|
|
benefic-ium, a
kindness;
|
benefacere, to
benefit; cf.
beneficus
. |
|
dēsīder-ium,
longing;
|
dēsīderāre,
to miss, from †dē-sīdēs,
out
|
|
of place, of missing
soldiers. |
|
adverb-ium,
adverb;
|
ad verbum
, [added] to a verb.
|
|
interlūn-ium,
time of new moon;
|
inter
lūnās, between
moons.
|
|
rēgifug-ium,
flight of the kings;
|
rēgis fuga,
flight of a king.
|
|
servi-tium,
slavery, the slave class;
|
servus, a slave.
|
Vowel stems lose their vowel before
-ium: as,
collēg-ium, from
collēga
.
[*] Note.--
-ium is the neuter of the adjective
suffix -ius. It is an inherited
primary suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary.
-tium is formed like -tia, by adding -ium to stems with t: as,
exit-ium, equit-ium (cf. exitus,
equitēs); so, by analogy,
calvitium
,
servitium
(from calvus,
servus).
[*] c.
Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are
formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the
suffixes—
-nia, F.; -nium, -lium, -cinium, N.
|
pecū-nia,
money (chattels); |
pecū,
cattle.
|
|
contici-nium, the hush
of night;
|
conticēscere,
to become still.
|
|
auxi-lium, help;
|
augēre, to
increase.
|
|
lātrō-cinium,
robbery;
|
latrō,
robber (cf. latrōcinor, rob,
implying an adjective †
latrōcinus
). |
For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244.
DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES
[*] 242.
Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are either
Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or
Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems).
Nominal Adjectives
[*] 243.
Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gender, that of the
primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.
They are formed by means of the suffixes—
-ulus (
-a,
-um),
-olus (after a vowel),
-culus,
-ellus,
-illus
|
rīv-ulus, a
streamlet;
|
rīvus, a
brook.
|
|
gladi-olus, a small
sword;
|
gladius, a
sword.
|
|
fīli-olus, a
little son;
|
fīlius, a
son.
|
|
fīli-ola, a
little daughter;
|
fīlia, a
daughter.
|
|
ātri-olum, a
little hall;
|
ātrium, a
hall.
|
|
homun-culus, a
dwarf;
|
homō, a
man.
|
|
auri-cula, a little
ear;
|
auris, an ear.
|
|
mūnus-culum, a
little gift;
|
mūnus
, N., a gift.
|
|
cōdic-illī,
writing-tablets;
|
cōdex, a
block.
|
|
mis-ellus, rather
wretched;
|
miser, wretched.
|
|
lib-ellus, a little
book;
|
liber, a book.
|
|
aure-olus (-a, -um),
golden;
|
aureus (-a, -um),
golden.
|
|
parv-olus (later
parv-ulus
), very small;
|
parvus (-a, -um),
little.
|
|
mâius-culus,
somewhat larger;
|
mâior (old
mâiōs
), greater.
|
[*] Note 1.--These diminutive
endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems. The formation is the same as
that of -ulus in § 251. But these words became
settled as diminutives, and retained their connection with
nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same
formation as bookish and snappish, -culus comes from
-lus added to adjectives in
-cus formed from stems in
n- and s-: as, iuven-cus,
Aurun-cus (cf.
Aurunculêius
), prīs-cus, whence the
cu
becomes a part of the termination, and the whole
ending (-culus) is used elsewhere,
but mostly with n- and s- stems, in accordance with its origin.
[*] Note 2.--Diminutives are
often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as, dēliciolae, little pet;
muliercula, a poor
(weak) woman; Graeculus, a miserable Greek.
[*] a.
-ciō, added to stems in
n-, has the same diminutive force,
but is used with masculines only: as,
homun-ciō,
a dwarf (from
homō,
a
man).
[*] 244.
Patronymics, indicating
descent or
relationship, are formed by adding to proper
names the suffixes—
-
-adēs, -idēs, -īdēs, -eus, M.; -ās, -is,
-ēis, F.
These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become
nouns in Latin:—
-
Atlās: Atlanti-adēs,
Mercury;
Atlant-idĕs (Gr.
plur.), the Pleiads.
-
Scīpiō
: Scīpi-adēs, son of
Scipio.
-
Tyndareus
: Tyndar-idēs, Castor or
Pollux, son of Tyndarus;
Tyndar-is,
Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.
-
Anchīsēs
: Anchīsi-adēs,
Æneas, son of
Anchises.
-
Thēseus: Thēs-īdēs,
son of Theseus.
-
Tȳdeus: Tȳd-īdēs,
Diomedes, son of Tydeus.
-
Oīleus
: Âiāx
Oīl-eus, son of
Oileus.
-
Cisseus
: Cissē-is,
Hecuba, daughter of
Cisseus.
-
Thaumās
: Thaumant-iās, Iris,
daughter of Thaumas.
-
Hesperus:
Hesper-ides
(from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of
Hesperus, the Hesperides.
[*] 245.
Adjectives meaning
full of, prone to, are
formed from nounstems with the suffixes—
-ōsus, -lēns, -lentus
|
fluctu-ōsus,
billowy;
|
fluctus, a
billow.
|
|
form-ōsus,
beautiful;
|
forma, beauty.
|
|
perīcul-ōsus,
dangerous;
|
perīculum,
danger.
|
|
pesti-lēns, pesti-lentus, pestilent;
|
pestis, pest.
|
|
vīno-lentus, vīn-ōsus, given to
drink;
|
vīnum,
wine.
|
[*] 246.
Adjectives meaning
provided with are formed
from nouns by means of the regular participial endings—
-tus, -ātus, -ītus, -ūtus
|
fūnes-tus,
deadly;
|
fūnus (st. fūner-, older (
fūne/os-
), death.
|
|
hones-tus,
honorable;
|
honor, honor.
|
|
faus-tus (for
†
faves-tus
), favorable;
|
favor, favor.
|
|
barb-ātus,
bearded;
|
barba, a beard.
|
|
turr-ītus,
turreted;
|
turris, a tower.
|
|
corn-ūtus,
horned;
|
cornū, a
horn.
|
[*] Note.--
-ātus, -ītus, -ūtus, imply reference to an imaginary
verb-stem: -tus is added directly
to nouns without any such reference.
[*] 247.
Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in general
made of or
belonging
to, are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes—
-eus, -ius, -āceus, -īcius, -āneus
(-neus), -ticus
|
aur-eus, golden;
|
aurum, gold.
|
|
patr-ius,
paternal;
|
pater, a father.
|
|
uxōr-ius,
uxorious;
|
uxor, a wife.
|
|
ros-āceus, of
roses;
|
rosa, a rose.
|
|
later-īcius,
of brick;
|
later, a brick.
|
|
praesent-āneus,
operating instantly;
|
praesēns,
present.
|
|
extr-āneus,
external;
|
extrā,
without.
|
|
subterr-āneus,
subterranean;
|
sub terrā,
underground.
|
|
salīg-neus, of
willow;
|
salix, willow.
|
|
volā-ticus,
winged (volātus, a flight); |
volāre, to
fly.
|
|
domes-ticus, of the
house, domestic;
|
domus, a house.
|
|
silvā-ticus,
sylvan;
|
silva, a wood.
|
[*] Note.--
-ius is originally primitive
(§ 234. 2.11);
-eus corresponds to Greek
-eios,
eos
, and has lost a y-sound (cf. yo-, § 234.
2.11); -īcius and
-āceus are formed by
adding -ius and -eus to stems in ī-c-,
ā-c- (suffix ko-, § 234.
2.12); -neus is no- + -eus (§ 234. 2.4); -āneus is formed by adding -neus to ā-stems; -ticus is a formation with -cus (cf. hosti-cus
with silvā-ticus), and has
been affected by the analogy of participial stems in to- (nominative -tus).
[*] 248.
Adjectives denoting
pertaining to are formed
from nounstems with the suffixes—
-ālis, -āris, -ēlis, -īlis,
-ūlis
|
nātūr-ālis,
natural;
|
nātūra,
nature.
|
|
popul-āris,
fellow-countryman;
|
populus, a
people.
|
|
patru-ēlis,
cousin;
|
patruus, uncle.
|
|
host-īlis,
hostile;
|
hostis, an
enemy.
|
|
cur-ūlis,
curule;
|
currus, a
chariot.
|
[*] Note.--The suffixes
arise from adding -lis (stem
li-) to various vowel stems.
The long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and
suffix (cf. vītā-lis, from
vītā-, with
rēg-ālis
), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf.
Aprīlis
(
aperīre
),
edūlis
(
edere
), with
senīlis
(
senex
). -ris is an inherited
suffix, but in most of these formations -āris arises by differentiation for
-ālis in words
containing an 1 (as
mīlit-āris
).
[*] 249.
Adjectives with the sense of
belonging to
are formed by means of the suffixes—
-
-ānus, -ēnus, -īnus; -ās, -ēnsis; -cus, -acus
(-ācus), -icus; -eus, -êius, -icius
-
So from common nouns:—
|
mont-ānus,
of the mountains;
|
mōns (stem
monti-),
mountain.
|
|
veter-ānus,
veteran;
|
vetus (stem veter-), old.
|
|
antelūc-ānus,
before daylight;
|
ante lūcem,
before light.
|
|
terr-ēnus,
earthly;
|
terra,
earth.
|
|
ser-ēnus,
calm (of evening stillness); |
sērus,
late.
|
|
coll-īnus,
of a hill;
|
collis,
hill.
|
|
dīv-īnus,
aivine;
|
dīvus,
god.
|
|
lībert-īnus,
of the class of freedmen;
|
lībertus,
one's freedman.
|
|
cûi-ās, of
what country?
|
quis,
who?
|
|
īnfim-ās, of
the lowest rank;
|
īnfimus,
lowest.
|
|
for-ēnsis,
of a market-place, or the
Forum;
|
forum, a
market-place.
|
|
cīvi-cus,
civic, of a
citizen;
|
cīvis,
a citizen.
|
|
fullōn-icus,
of a fuller;
|
fullō,
a fuller.
|
|
mer-ācus,
pure;
|
merum, pure
wine.
|
|
fēmin-eus,
of a woman, feminine;
|
fēmina,
a woman.
|
|
lact-eus,
milky;
|
lac,
milk (stem lacti-). |
|
plēb-ēius, of
the commons, plebeian;
|
plēbēs, the
commons.
|
|
patr-icius,
patrician;
|
pater,
father.
|
-
But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming
from:
|
Rōm-ānus,
Roman;
|
Rōma,
Rome.
|
|
Sull-ānī,
Sulla's veterans;
|
Sulla
. |
|
Cyzic-ēnī,
Cyzicenes, people of
Cyzicus;
|
Cyzicus
. |
|
Ligur-īnus,
of Liguria;
|
Liguria. |
|
Arpīn-ās, of
Arpinum;
|
Arpīnum
. |
|
Sicili-ēnsis,
Sicilian;
|
Sicilia,
Sicily.
|
|
Īli-acus,
Trojan (a Greek form); |
Īlium,
Troy.
|
|
Platōn-icus,
Platonic;
|
Platō. |
| Aquil-êius, a Roman
name;Aquil-êia, a town in
Italy; |
Aquila. |
[*] a.
Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage
become nouns:—
| Silv-ānus, M., a
god of the woods;
|
silva, a
wood.
|
| membr-āna, F.,
skin;
|
membrum,
limb.
|
|
Aemili-ānus
, M., name of Scipio
Africanus;
|
Aemilia
(
gēns
). |
| lani-ēna, F., a
butcher's stall;
|
lanius,
butcher.
|
| Aufidi-ēnus, M., a Roman
name; |
†Aufidius (
Aufidus
). |
| inquil-īnus, M.,
a lodger;
|
incola, an
inhabitant.
|
|
Caec-īna
, used as M., a Roman name; |
caecus,
blind.
|
| ru-īna, F., a
fall;
|
ruō,
fall (no noun existing). |
|
doctr-īna
, F., learning;
|
doctor,
teacher.
|
[*] Note.--Of these
terminations, -ānus,
-ēnus, -īnus are compounded from
-nus added to a stem-vowel:
as,
arca
, arcānus;
collis,
collīnus
. The long vowels come from a confusion with
verb-stems (as in plē-nus,fīnī-tus,
tribū-tus), and
from the noun-stem in ā-. as,
arcānus
. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if
from verb-stems in ō-
and ū-: as,
colōnus
(colō,
cf. incola),
patrōnus
(cf.
patrō
, -āre),
tribūnus
(cf. tribuō,
tribus),
Portūnus
(cf.
portus
),
Vacūna
(cf. vacō,
vacuus).
[*] 250.
Other adjectives meaning in a general way
belonging
to (especially of
places and
times) are formed with the
suffixes—
ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus,
-nus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus)
|
palūs-ter, of
the marshes;
|
palūs, a
marsh.
|
|
pedes-ter, of the
foot-soldiers;
|
pedes, a
footman.
|
|
sēmēs-tris,
lasting six months;
|
sex mēnsēs,
six months.
|
| silv-ester,
silv-estris,
woody;
|
silva, a wood.
|
|
fīni-timus,
neighboring, on the
borders;
|
fīnis, an
end.
|
|
mari-timus, of the
sea;
|
mare, sea.
|
|
vēr-nus,
vernal;
|
vēr,
spring.
|
|
hodi-ernus, of
to-day;
|
hodiē,
to-day.
|
|
di-urnus, daily;
|
diēs,
day.
|
|
hes-ternus, of
yesterday;
|
herī (old
hesī
), yesterday.
|
|
diū-turnus,
lasting;
|
diū,
long (in time). |
[*] Note.--Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-,
§ 234. 2.16) to stems in
t- or d-. Thus †pedet-tri-becomes
pedestri-, and others follow the
analogy. -nus is an inherited suffix
(§ 234. 2.4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s-stems: as,
diur-nus (for †
dius-nus
), and hence, by analogy,
hodiernus
(
hodiē
). By an extension of the same principle were formed the
suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like
paternus
and
nocturnus
.
[*] a.
Adjectives meaning
belonging to are formed
from nouns by means of the suffixes—
-ārius, -tōrius (-sōrius)
|
ōrdin-ārius,
regular;
|
ōrdō,
rank, order.
|
|
argent-ārius,
of silver or money; |
argentum,
silver.
|
|
extr-ārius,
stranger;
|
extrā,
outside.
|
|
meri-tōrius,
profitable;
|
meritus, earned.
|
|
dēvor-sōrius, of an
inn (cf. § 254. 5); |
dēvorsus,
turned aside.
|
[*] Note 1.--Here -ius (§ 234. 2.11) is added to shorter forms in -āris and -or: as,
pecūliārius
(from
pecūliāris
),
bellātōrius
(from
bellātor
).
[*] Note 2.--These adjectives are
often fixed as nouns (see § 254).
Verbal Adjectives
[*] 251.
Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a
quality or
tendency are formed
from real or apparent verb-stems with the suffixes—
-āx, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -īvus,
-tīvus)
-āx denotes a
faulty or
aggressive
tendency;
-tīvus is oftener
passive.
|
pūgn-āx,
pugnacious;
|
pūgnāre,
to fight.
|
|
aud-āx,
bold;
|
audēre, to
dare.
|
|
cup-idus, eager;
|
cupere, to
desire.
|
|
bib-ulus,
thirsty (as dry earth etc.); |
bibere, to
drink.
|
|
proter-vus,
violent, wanton;
|
prōterere, to
trample.
|
|
noc-uus (
noc-īvus
), hurtful,
injurious;
|
nocēre, to do
harm.
|
|
recid-īvus,
restored;
|
recidere, to fall
back.
|
|
cap-tīvus,
captive; M., a prisoner of
war;
|
capere, to take.
|
[*] Note.--Of these,
-āx is a reduction of
-ācus (stem-vowel
ā- + -cus), become independent and used with
verb-stems. Similar forms in -ĕx, -ōx, -īx, and -ūx are found or employed in derivatives:
as,
imbrex
, M., a rain-tile (from
imber
); senex,
old (from
seni-s
); ferōx,
fierce (from
ferus
); atrōx,
savage (from āter, black);
celōx, F., a yacht
(cf.
cellō
); fēlīx, happy,
originally fertile (cf. fēlō,
suck);
fīdūcia
, F., confidence (as from
†
fīdūx
); cf. also
victrīx
(from
victor
). So mandūcus,
chewing (from
mandō
).
-idus is no doubt denominative, as in
herbidus,
grassy
(from
herba,
herb);
tumidus,
swollen
(cf.
tumu-lus,
hill;
tumul-tus,
uproar);
callidus,
tough,
cunning (cf.
callum,
tough flesh);
mūcidus,
slimy (cf.
mūcus,
slime);
tābidus,
wasting (cf.
tābēs,
wasting
disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly
from verb-stems.
-ulus is the same suffix as in
diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf.
aemulus,
rivalling (cf.
imitor and
imāgō);
sēdulus,
sitting by,
attentive (cf.
domi-seda,
homestaying, and
sēdō,
set,
settle, hence
calm);
pendulus,
hanging
(cf.
pondō
,
ablative,
in weight;
perpendiculum,
a plummet;
appendix,
an addition);
strāgulus,
covering (cf.
strāgēs
);
legulus,
a
picker (cf.
sacri-legus,
a picker up of things sacred).
-vus seems originally primary (cf.
§ 234. 2.8), but
-īvus and
-tīvus have become secondary and are used
with nouns: as,
aestīvus,
of summer (from
aestus,
heat);
tempestīvus,
timely (from
tempus
); cf.
domes-ticus (from
domus
).
[*] 252.
Adjectives expressing
passive qualities, but
occasionally active, are formed by means of the suffixes—
-ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis)
|
frag-ilis,
frail;
|
frangere (FRAG), to
break.
|
|
nō-bilis, well
known, famous;
|
nōscere (GNO),
to know.
|
|
exim-ius,
choice, rare (cf.
ē-greg-ius
); |
eximere, to take out,
select.
|
|
ag-ilis, active;
|
agere, to drive.
|
|
hab-ilis, handy;
|
habēre, to
hold.
|
|
al-tilis,
fattened (see note); |
alere, to
nourish.
|
[*] Note.--Of these,
-ius is primary, but is also
used as secondary (cf. § 241. b. N.). -ilis is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis）
and secondary (as in similis,
like, cf. ὅμος,
ὅμαλος, English same);
-bilis is in some way related
to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. N.); in -tilis and
-silis, -lis is added to to-
(so-), stem of the perfect
participle: as, fossilis,
dug up (from fossus, dug); volātilis, winged (from
volātus,
flight).
[*] 253.
Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are formed with the
suffixes—
-ndus, -bundus, -cundus
[*] a.
-ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few
active or reflexive adjectives:—
[*] b.
-bundus,
-cundus, denote a
continuance of the
act or
quality expressed by the verb:—
|
vītā-bundus,
avoiding;
|
vītāre,
to shun.
|
|
treme-bundus,
trembling;
|
tremere, to
tremble.
|
|
mori-bundus,
dying, at the point of death;
|
morīrī,
to die.
|
|
fā-cundus,
eloquent;
|
fārī,
to speak.
|
|
fē-cundus,
fruitful;
|
root FĒ, nourish.
|
|
īrā-cundus,
irascible;
|
cf. īrāscī,
to be angry.
|
[*] Note.--These must have
been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red bush;
rubidus (but no
†
rubicus
), ruddy;
Rubicōn, Red
River (cf.
Miniō
, a river of Etruria;
Minius, a river of Lusitania);
rubicundus
(as in averruncus,
homun-culus). So turba, commotion;
turbō, a top;
turbidus, roily,
etc. Cf.
apexabō
,
longabō
,
gravēdō
,
dulcēdō
.
[*] c.
Here belong also the participial suffixes
-minus,
-mnus (cf. Greek
-
μενος), from which are formed a
few nouns in which the participial force is still
discernible:—
6
|
fē-mina,
woman (the nourisher); |
root FĒ, nourish.
|
|
alu-mnus, a
foster-child, nursling;
|
alere, to
nourish.
|
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes
[*] 254.
Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men tioned in the
preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regularly used in
particular senses:—
-
-ārius, person
employed about anything:—
-
argent-ārius
, M., silversmith,
broker, from argentum, silver.
- Corinthi-ārius, M.,
worker in Corinthian bronze
(sarcastic nickname of Augustus), from (
aes
) Corinthium,
Corinthian bronze.
- centōn-ārius, M.,
ragman, from centō,
patchwork.
-
-āria, thing
connected with something:—
- argent-āria, F.,
bank, from argentum, silver.
- arēn-āriae, F.
plural,
sandpits, from arēna, sand.
- Asin-āria, F., name of a play,
from asinus, ass.
7
-
-ārium, place
of a thing (with a few of more general
meaning):—
- aer-ārium, N.,
treasury, from aes, copper.
- tepid-ārium, N., warm
bath, from tepidus, warm.
- sūd-ārium, N.,
a towel, cf.
sūdō
, -āre,
sweat.
- sal-ārium, N., salt
money, salary, from sāl, salt.
- calendārium, N., a
note-book, from calendae, calends.
-
-tōria (-sōria):—
- Agitā-tōria, F., a
play of Plautus, The
Carter, from
agitātor.
- vor-sōria, F., a
tack (nautical), from vorsus, a turn.
-
-tōrium (-sōrium), place of
action (with a few of more general meaning):
- dēvor-sōrium, N.,
an inn, as from dēvortō, turn
aside.
- audī-tōrium, N.,
a lecture-room, as from audiō,
hear.
- ten-tōrium, N., a
tent, as from tendō, stretch.
- tēc-tōrium, N.,
plaster, as from
tegō
, tēctus, cover.
- por-tōrium, N.,
toll, cf. portō, carry,
and portus,
harbor.
-
-īle,
animal-stall:—
- bov-īle, N.,
cattle-stall, from
bōs
, bŏvis, ox,
cow.
- ov-īle, N.,
sheepfold, from
ovis
, stem ovi-,
sheep.
-
-al for -āle, thing connected
with the primitive:—
- capit-al, N., headdress,
capital crime, from caput, head.
-
penetr-āle
(especially in plural), N., inner
apartment, cf. penetrō, enter.
-
Sāturn-ālia, N.
plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast
of Sat urn, from
Sāturnus
.
-
-ētum, N. (cf. -ātus, -ūtus, see § 246. N.), -tum, place of a thing, especially
with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow:—
- querc-ētum, N., oak
grove, from quercus, oak.
- olīv-ētum, N.,
olive grove, from olīva, an olive
tree.
- salic-tum, N., a willow
thicket, from salix, a willow tree.
- Argil-ētum, N., The Clay
Pit, from argilla, clay.
-
-cus (sometimes with
insertedi, -icus),
-īcus, in any one of
the genders, with various meanings:—
- vīli-cus, M., a
steward, vīli-ca, F.,
a stewardess, from vīlla,
farm-house.
- fabr-ica, F., a workshop,
from faber,
workman.
-
am-īcus
, M., am-īca, F.,
friend, cf. amāre, to love.
- būbul-cus, M.,
ox-tender,
frombūb-ulus, diminutive, cf.
bōs,
ox.
- cant-icum, N., song, from
cantus, act of
singing.
- rubr-īca, F., red
paint, from ruber,
red.
-
-eus, -ea, -eum, with various
meanings:—
- alv-eus, M., a trough,
from alvus, the
belly.
- capr-ea, F., a wild
she-goat, from caper, he-goat.
- flamm-eum, N., a bridal
veil, from flamma,
flame, from its color.
-
-ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester:—
- eques-ter, M., knight, for
†equet-ter.
- sequ-ester, M., a
stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.
- ole-aster, M., wild olive,
from olea, an olive
tree.
IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES
[*] 255.
The suffix
-ō (genitive
-ōnis, stem
ōn-), usually added to verb-stems
(see § 236.
c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to form
nouns denoting
possessed of. These were
originally adjectives expressing
quality or
character, and hence often appear as
proper names:—
-
epulae, a feast;
epul-ō, a
feaster.
-
nāsus, a nose;
nās-ō,
with a large nose (also as a proper
name).
-
volus
(in
bene-volus
), wishing;
vol-ōnēs
(plural), volunteers.
-
frōns,
forehead;
front-ō,
big-head (also as a proper name).
-
cūria, a
curia;
cūri-ō,
head of a curia (also as a proper name).
-
restis, a rope;
resti-ō, a
rope-maker.
[*] a.
Rarely suffixes are added to
compound stems
imagined, but not used in their compound form:—
-
ad-verb-ium, adverb;
ad, to, and
verbum,
verb, but without the intervening
†adverbus.
-
lāti-fund-ium,
large estate;
lātus,
wide, fundus,
estate, but without the inter vening
†lātifundus.
-
su-ove-taur-īlia,
a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull;
sūs,
swine, ovis,
sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive
would be impossible in Latin, though such formations are
common in Sanskrit.
DERIVATION OF VERBS
[*] 256.
Verbs may be classed as Primitive or
Derivative.
- Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the
parent speech.
- Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the
Latin as a separate language.
[*] 257.
Derivative Verbs are of two main classes:—
- Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
- Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other
verbs
Denominative Verbs
[*] 258.
Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun-stem and
adjective-stem.
[*] 259.
- Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly from
ā-stems, regularly
with a transitive meaning: as, fuga, flight;
fugāre, put to
flight.
- Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from
o- stems, changing the o- into ā-. These are more commonly
transitive:—
-
stimulō
, -āre,
to incite, from stimulus, a good (stem
stimulo-).
-
aequō
, -āre,
to make even, from aequus, even (stem
aequo-).
-
hībernō
, -āre,
to pass the winter, from hībernus, of
the winter (stem hīberno-).
-
albō
, -āre,
to whiten, from albus, white (stem
albo-).
-
piō
, -āre,
to expiate, from pius, pure (stem pio-).
- novō, -āre, to renew,
from novus,
new (stem novo-).
-
armō
, -āre,
to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).
-
damnō
, -āre,
to injure, from damnum, injury (stem
damno-).
- A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by
analogy from consonant and i- or
u-stems, adding ā to the
stem:—8
-
vigilō
, -āre,
to watch, from vigil, awake.
-
exsulō
, -āre,
to be in exile, from exsul, an exile.
-
auspicor, -ārī,
to take the auspices, from
auspex
(stem auspic-),
augur.
-
pulverō
, -āre,
to turn (anything) to
dust, from pulvis
(stem pulver- for pulvis-), dust.
-
aestuō,
-āre,
to surge, boil, from
aestus
(stem aestu-),
tide, seething
-
levō, -āre, to
lighten, from
levis
(stem levi-),
light.
[*] 260.
A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are
recognizable as formed from noun-stems; but most are inherited, or
the primitive noun-stem is lost:—
-
albeō, -ēre, to be
white, from
albus
(stem (
albo/e-
), white.
-
cāneo, -ēre, to be
hoary, from
cānus
(stem (
cāno/e-
), hoary.
-
clāreō
, -ēre,
to shine, from clārus, bright.
-
claudeō
, -ēre,
to be lame, from claudus, lame.
-
algeō, -ēre, to be cold,
cf. algidus,
cold.
[*] 261.
Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in
-uō,
-uere,
are formed from noun-stems in
u- and
have lost a consonant
i:—
-
statuō
(for †
statu-yō
), -ere, to
set up, from status, position.
-
metuō
, -ere, to
fear, from metus,
fear.
-
acuō
, -ere, to
sharpen, from acus,
needle.
-
arguō
, -ere, to
clear up, from inherited stem
†argu-,
bright (cf. ἄργυρος).
[*] Note.--Many verbs in u
are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as,
fluō
, fluere, flow;
so-lvō
(for
†sē-luō, cf.
λύω), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have
a parasitic u: as,
loquor
, locūtus,
speak.
[*] 262.
Many
ī-verbs or verbs of the
Fourth Conjugation are formed from
i-stems:—
-
mōlior, -īrī,
to toil, from
mōlēs
(-is), mass.
-
fīniō
, -īre,
to bound, from fīnis, end.
-
sitiō
, -īre,
to thirst, from sitis, thirst.
-
stabiliō
, -īre,
to establish, from stabilis, stable.
[*] a.
Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as
i-stems:—
-
bulliō, -īre, to
boil, from
bulla
(stem bullā-), bubble.
-
condiō, -īre, to
preserve, from
condus
(stem condo-),
storekeeper.
-
īnsāniō,
-īre,
to rave, from
īnsānus
(stem īnsāno-),
mad.
-
gestiō, -īre, to show
wild longing, from
gestus
(stem gestu-),
gesture.
[*] Note.--Some of this
form are of doubtful origin: as, ōrdior, begin, cf.
ōrdo
and
exōrdium
. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in
-iō of the third
conjugation (p. 102).
[*] b.
Some are formed with
-iō from
consonant stems:—
-
cūstōdiō,
-īre,
to guard, from
cūstōs
(stem cūstōd-),
guardian.
-
fulguriō
, -īre,
to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.
[*] Note.--Here probably
belong the so-called desideratives in -uriō (see § 263. 4. N.).
Verbs from Other Verbs
[*] 263.
The following four classes of verbs regularly derived from other
verbs have special meanings connected with their terminations.
[*] Note.--These classes are
all really denominative in their origin, but the formations had
become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were
often formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a
noun-stem.
- Inceptives or Inchoatives add -scō
9 to the present stem of
verbs. They denote the beginning of an
action and are of the Third Conjugation. Of some there is no
simple verb in existence:—
-
calē-scō, grow
warm, from caleō, be warm.
-
labā-scō, begin to
totter, from labō, totter.
-
scī-scō,
determine, from sciō, know.
-
con-cupī-scō,
conceive a desire for, from cupiō,
desire.
-
alē-scō,
grow, from alō, feed.
- So īrā-scor, get
angry; cf.
īrā-tus
.
-
iuvenē-scō, grow
young; cf. iuvenis, young man.
-
mītē-scō,
grow mild; cf. mītis, mild.
-
vesperā-scit,
it is getting late; cf. vesper, evening.
[*] Note 2.--Inceptives
properly have only the present stem, but many use the
perfect and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calēscō,
grow warm, caluī;
ārdēscō,
blaze forth, ārsī;
proficīscor, set out,
profectus
.
- Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem
and end in-tō or -itō (rarely -sō). They denote a forcible or repeatedaction, but this special sense often disappears.
Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in
-itō (not -ātō).
-
iac-tō,
hurl, from iaciō, throw.
-
dormī-tō, be
sleepy, from dormiō, sleep.
-
vol-itō,
flit, from volō, fly.
-
vēndi-tō, try to
sell, from vēndō,
sell.
-
quas-sō,
shatter, from quatiō, shake.
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
[*] a.
Compound suffixes -titō,
-sitō, are formed
with a few verbs. These are probably derived from other
Iteratives; thus,
cantitō
may come from cantō, iterative
of canō,
sing.
[*] b.
Another form of Intensives—sometimes called
Meditatives, or verbs of practice—ends in
-essō (rarely
-issō). These denote
a certain energy or eagerness of action rather than its
repetition:—
-
cap-essō,
lay hold on, from capiō, take.
-
fac-essō,
do (with energy), from faciō,
do.
-
pet-esso, pet-issō, seek
(eagerly), from petō, seek.
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect
and supine of the fourth:—
-
arcessō
,
arcessĕre
,
arcessīvī
, arcessītum, summon.
-
lacessō
,
lacessĕre
,
lacessīvī
, lacessītum, provoke.
[*] Note.--The verbs in
-essō, -issō, show the same
formation as levāssō,
impetrāssere,
iūdicāssit, etc.
(§ 183. 5), but
its origin is not fully explained.
- Diminutives end in -illō, and denote a feeble or pettyaction:—
-
cav-illor,
jest, cf. cavilla, raillery.
-
cant-illō,
chirp or warble, from cantō, sing.
[*] Note 2.--Diminutives
are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed
diminutive nouns.
- Desideratives end in -turiō (-suriō), and express longing or wishing.They are
of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in common
use:—
-
par-turiō,
be in labor, from pariō, bring
forth.
-
ē-suriō
(for †
ed-turiō
), be hungry, from edō,
eat.
Others are used by the dramatists.
[*] Note 3.--Desideratives are
probably derived from some noun of agency: as, ēmpturiō, wish to
buy, from ēmptor,
buyer.
Vīsō, go to
see, is an inherited desiderative of a different
formation.
