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Canada (Canada) (search for this): chapter 16
te is replaced by an earthy mineral pigment of the desired color. Paper is rendered transparent by a varnish composed of Canada balsam dissolved in turpentine. Carbolic-acid paper is now much used for packing fresh meats for the purpose of presersed to revolve around each other. By sawing the piece in two in the proper direction and cementing the two surfaces with Canada balsam, one of these images may be entirely got rid of A piece thus treated constitutes Nicol's prism, and forms the mean; Newport, R. I., 1732; Halifax, N. S., 1751; Newbern, N. C., 1755; Portsmouth, N. H., 1756; Savannah, Ga., 1763; Quebec, Canada, 1764. The first press west of the Alleghany range was in Cincinnati, 1793. The first press west of the Mississippi, inthrough the prism. This enables the Nicol prism to be used as an analyzer It is usual to cement the two sections with Canada balsam, the angle of refraction of which being less than that of the Iceland spar, does not interfere with elimination of
Potsdam, N. Y. (New York, United States) (search for this): chapter 16
nd the transposed words in the article in the Venetian journal (1711), quoted above, which speaks of the piano and forte as being heard, and also gradations and diversity of power, as in a violoncello, refer to the same versatility of expression. The name forte-piano occurs in Harris's English patent, 1740, but the instrument was a harpsichord. Silbermann made two hammer-harpsichords in 1736. His instruments, called forte-pianos, were played by Bach at Frederick the Great's palace at Potsdam. Bach regarded them as too coarse, and preferred the clavichord, which was, as Forkel says in his Life of Bach, poor in tone, but on a small scale extremely flexible. After Silbermann came his pupil Stein, upon whose piano-fortes Mozart so loved to play (1777). Frederici, a fellow-pupil of Stein's, made the first square piano. The farther history of the piano introduces the name of Sebastian Erard of Strasburg, who invented the escapement, which effected precision in the stroke of the
Zurich (Switzerland) (search for this): chapter 16
rice. The annual product was valued at £ 40,000. This source of supply eventually failed, but the loss was scarcely felt, as a number of other mines had been discovered in various parts of the world. The ancients drew lines and letters with leaden styles, and afterward an alloy of lead an tin was used. Pliny refers to the use of lead for ruling lines on papyrus. La Moine cites a document of 1387 ruled with graphite. Slips of graphite in wooden sticks (pencils) are mentioned by Gesner, Zurich, in 1565; he credits England with the production. They were doubtless the product of the Borrowdale mine, then lately discovered. In the early part of the seventeenth century, black-lead pencils are distinctly described by several writers. They are noticed by Ambrosinus, 1648; spoken of by Pettus, in 1683, as inclosed in fir or cedar. Red and black chalk pencils were used in Germany in 1450; in fact, fragments of chalk, charcoal, and shaped sticks of colored minerals had been in use si
Ratisbon (Bavaria, Germany) (search for this): chapter 16
almost innumerable; in fact, anything having a fibrous texture may be used, and the question resolves itself into one of economy. See pulp-boiler. Koops in 1800 published a work on paper, which was printed on paper made of straw, with an appendix on paper made of wood. A second edition was published in 1801, upon paper re-made from old printed and written paper. In 1835, Piette published a work on the subject of Paper from straw, etc., giving 160 specimens. In 1765, Schaeffer, of Ratisbon, printed a book on sixty varieties of paper made from as many different materials; a copy is now in the Smithsonian Institute Library. In 1786, the Marquis de Vilette published in London a small book, printed on paper made from marsh mallow; at the end are leaves of paper manufactured at Bruges from twenty different plants, such as nettles, hops, reeds, etc. The following is a list of materials (numbering in all 402) from which paper has been made or proposed to be made, with referen
Derby (United Kingdom) (search for this): chapter 16
ng and filing, and is at the bottom of all successful fitting of machinery. It is next in importance to the lathe, and has, since its invention, about 1814, been much modified and improved. Its use has effected a complete change in the manufacture of tools and machinery of every class, and has made possible the construction of many works which could hardly otherwise have been attempted. In its invention we find credits to Clements of London, who was a workman in Bramah's shop; to Fox of Derby, and to Roberts and Rennie of Manchester. Bramah, it appears, employed, in 1811, the revolving cutter to plane iron, thus adapting to metal the form found best adapted to wood-working, and which survives in our milling-machines, now so much and deservedly esteemed. Clement, previous to 1820, made a planing-machine for planing the sides of looms and the triangular bars of lathes. The bed moved on rollers, and the tools cut both ways. Much of the moved on rollers, and the tools cut both wa
Samarcand (North Carolina, United States) (search for this): chapter 16
roduced into Constantinople from the East. Paper was made by the Saracens in Spain from flax, and afterward from cotton. Some time previous to this, however, a cotton paper, made in Damascus and designated as Charta damascena, had been known in Europe. An Arabian author of the thirteenth century states that cotton paper was invented at Mecca by one Joseph Amru, about the year of the Hegira 88, that is, A. D. 706. Another Arabian authority states that a paper manufactory was found at Samarcand, in Bucharia, when the Arabs conquered that country in the year of the Hegira 85. The oldest manuscript written on cotton paper in England is in the Bodleian collection of the British Museum, and bears date 1049. The most ancient manuscript on the same material in the Library of Paris is dated 1050. In 1085 A. D., the Christian successors of the Spanish Saracens made paper of rags instead of raw cotton, which is recognized by its yellowness and brittleness. A very early specimen of l
Florence (Italy) (search for this): chapter 16
y night be read by the whole people; after approval, they were permanently engraved on bronze and deposited in the Capitol, where a large collection was melted upon the occasion of the conflagration occasioned by that edifice being struck by lightning. The Cretans also used bronze records. Among the ancient inscriptions on bronze yet extant are the Scriptum de Bacchanalibus, Imperial Library; Trajan's Tabula Alimentaria ; the helmet found at Cannae with Punic letters, in the museum at Florence, and various others in the Italian museums, containing inscriptions in Etruscan and Latin. A deed for land, engraved on copper in Sanscrit characters and bearing date about 100 B. C., was dug up at Mongheer in Bengal. The grantor was a Bideram Gunt. Pliny informs us that such documents were rolled up like a cylinder. Two letters are still preserved which passed between Pope Leo III. and Luitbrand, king of the Longobards. Montfaucon notices an ancient book composed of eight leaves
Lombardy (Italy) (search for this): chapter 16
he latter might as well be counted out as an anachronism on the face of Europe, — slavery survived longest in Scotland, where it was extinguished within the memory of people yet living. It was succeeded by eviction and deportation, which are no great improvement and are now the order of the day. The Scotch lord has no more bowels than Cato, who recommended to sell old and diseased slaves. The poorlaw guardians, lacking a market, pay a bonus for their removal, and call it emigration. In Lombardy the landlord pays taxes and makes repairs; the tenant provides cattle, implements, seed, and labor, and gives one half the produce to the landlord. In the Neapolitan territory the landlord has two thirds the produce. In Ohio and neighboring States the landlord receives one third. In Japan he receives one sixth. The grain or produce rent, in contradistinction to the cash rent, is the more common mode of tenure throughout the Continent of Europe. In England it is on a cash basis. That
Ballston (New York, United States) (search for this): chapter 16
a. Paper-stock boiler for ligneous matters. Martin Nixon, Philadelphia. Boiler for treating paper-stock under pressure by the action of upward current of steam and downward current of hot alkaline solution. Crocker and Marshal, Lawrence, Mass. Combination of drying-cylinders, moistening apparatus, and calender-rolls for finishing paper. 1860. Jordan and Kiney (reissued patent). Conical grinder and case having induction and eduction pipes for rags and size. C. S. Buchanan, Ballston Spa, N. Y. Rotary boiler with cylindrical concentric strainer and hollow trunnions, for treating paper-stock. Gelston Sanford, New York. Pulper with conical ribs and serrated rubbers. A. Randel, New York. Rag-machine with differential rolls, shredding cylinder, and spiked concave. A. S. Lyman, New York. Separating fibrous matters by subjecting them in a close vessel to the action of an apparatus for beating, rubbing, grinding, or picking, and water at high temperature and pressure.
Lancaster (United Kingdom) (search for this): chapter 16
were made in Venice during the sixteenth century, but the invention of casting glass to form plates is due to Abraham Thevart. In the year 1688, plates 84 × 50 inches were cast by his process at St. Gobin, in Picardy. A plate-glass manufactory on a small scale was established at Lambeth in 1673, but the manufacture does not appear to have flourished in England until it was undertaken by the British Plate-Glass Company, chartered by act of Parliament in 1773. Their works at Ravenshead, Lancashire, are still in operation. The ingredients and their proportions, employed in making plate-glass, are kept secret as far as possible by the manufacturers. The following is given as one of the formulas: Silica, 78 parts; potash, 2; soda, 13; lime, 5; alumina, 2. The materials, in a comminuted form, are fused in crucibles or pots exposed to an intense heat in a furnace; the complete fusion requires about 20 hours. From the pots it is ladled into a cistern, the cuvette, which is also pla
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