BOOK IV.
GAUL.
SUMMARY.
The Fourth Book contains a description of the regions about Gaul, Spain,
and the Alps on this side, towards Italy. Likewise of Britain, and of
certain islands in the ocean which are habitable, together with the country
of the barbarians, and the nations dwelling beyond the Danube.
CHAPTER I.
NEXT in order [after Iberia] comes Keltica beyond the
Alps,
1 the configuration and size of which has been already
mentioned in a general manner; we are now to describe it
more particularly. Some divide it into the three nations of
the Aquitani, Belge, and Kelte.
2 Of these the Aquitani differ
completely from the other nations, not only in their language
but in their figure, which resembles more that of the Iberians
than the Galatæ. The others are Galatæ in countenance,
although they do not all speak the same language, but some
make a slight difference in their speech; neither is their
polity and mode of life exactly the same. These writers give
the name of Aquitani and Keltæ to the dwellers near the
Pyrenees, which are bounded by the Cevennes. For it has
been stated that this Keltica is bounded on the west by the
mountains of the Pyrenees, which extend to either sea, both
the Mediterranean and the ocean; on the east by the Rhine,
which is parallel to the Pyrenees; on the north by the ocean,
from the northern extremities of the Pyrenees to the mouths
of the Rhine; on the south by the sea of Marseilles, and
Narbonne, and by the Alps from Liguria to the sources of
the Rhine. The Cevennes lie at right angles to the Pyrenees, and traverse the plains for about 2000 stadia, terminating
in the middle near Lugdunum.
3 They call those people Aquitani who inhabit the northern portions of the Pyrenees, and
the Cevennes extending as far as the ocean, and bounded by
the river Garonne; and Keltæ, those who dwell on the other
side of the Garonne, towards the sea of Marseilles and Narbonne, and touching a portion of the Alpine chain. This is
the division adopted by divus Cæsar in his Commentaries.
4
But Augustus Cæsar, when dividing the country into four
parts, united the Keltæ to the Narbonnaise; the Aquitani
he preserved the same as Julius Cæsar, but added thereto
fourteen other nations of those who dwelt between the Garonne and the river Loire,
5 and dividing the rest into two
parts, the one extending to the upper districts of the Rhine
he made dependent upon Lugdunum, the other [he assigned]
to the Belgæ. However, it is the duty of the Geographer to
describe the physical divisions of each country, and those which
result from diversity of nations, when they seem worthy of
notice; as to the limits which princes, induced by a policy
which circumstances dictate, have variously imposed, it will
be sufficient for him to notice them summarily, leaving others
to furnish particular details.
[
2]
The whole of this country is irrigated by rivers descending from the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, some of
which discharge themselves into the ocean, others into the
Mediterranean. The districts through which they flow are
mostly plains interspersed with hills, and having navigable
streams. The course of these rivers is so happily disposed in relation to each other, that you may traffic from
one sea to the other,
6 carrying the merchandise only a
small distance, and that easily, across the plains; but for the
most part by the rivers, ascending some, and descending
others. The Rhone is pre-eminent in this respect, both because it communicates with many other rivers, and also because it flows into the Mediterranean, which, as we have said,
is superior to the ocean,
7 and likewise passes through the
richest provinces of Gaul. The whole of the Narbonnaise
produces the same fruits as Italy. As we advance towards the
north, and the mountains of the Cevennes, the plantations of the
olive and fig disappear, but the others remain. Likewise the
vine, as you proceed northward, does not easily mature its
fruit. The entire of the remaining country produces in
abundance corn, millet, acorns, and mast of all kinds. No
part of it lies waste except that which is taken up in marshes
and woods, and even this is inhabited. The cause of this,
however, is rather a dense population than the industry of
the inhabitants. For the women there are both very prolific
and excellent nurses, while the men devote themselves rather
to war than husbandry. However, their arms being now laid
aside, they are compelled to engage in agriculture. These
remarks apply generally to the whole of Transalpine Keltica.
We must now describe particularly each of the four divisions,
which hitherto we have only mentioned in a summary manner. And, first, of the Narbonnaise.
[
3]
The configuration of this country resembles a parallelogram, the western side of which is traced by the Pyrenees,
the north by the Cevennes; as for the other two sides, the
south is bounded by the sea between the Pyrenees and Marseilles, and the east partly by the Alps,
8 and partly by a line
drawn perpendicularly from these mountains to the foot of the
Cevennes, which extend towards the Rhone, and form a right
angle with the aforesaid perpendicular drawn from the Alps.
To the southern side of this parallelogram we must add the
sea-coast inhabited by the Massilienses
9 and Salyes,
10 as far as
the country of the Ligurians, the confines of Italy, and the river
Var. This river, as we have said before,
11 is the boundary of the
Narbonnaise and Italy. It is but small in summer, but in winter
swells to a breadth of seven stadia. From thence the coast
extends to the temple of the Pyrenæan Venus,
12 which is the
boundary between this province and Iberia. Some, however, assert that the spot where the Trophies of Pompey stand
is the boundary between Iberia and Keltica. From thence
to Narbonne is 63 miles; from Narbonne to Nemausus,
13 88;
from Nemausus through Ugernum
14 and Tarusco, to the hot
waters called Sextiæ
15 near Marseilles, 53;
16 from thence to
Antipolis and the river Var, 73; making in the total 277
miles. Some set down the distance from the temple of Venus
to the Var at 2600 stadia; while others increase this number
by 200 stadia; for there are different opinions as to these
distances. As for the other road, which traverses the [coun-
tries of the] Vocontii
17 and Cottius,
18 from Nemausus
19 to
Ugernum and Tarusco, the route is common; from thence [it
branches off in two directions], one through Druentia and
Caballio,
20 to the frontiers of the Vocontii and the commencement of the ascent of the Alps, which is 63 miles; the other
is reckoned at 99 miles from the same point to the other extremity of the Vocontii, bordering on the state of Cottius, as
far as the village of Ebrodunum.
21 The distance is said to be
the same by the route through the village of Brigantium,
22
Scingomagus,
23 and the passage of the Alps to Ocelum,
24 which
is the limit of the country of Cottius. However, it is considered to be Italy from Scingomagus. And Ocelum is 28
miles beyond this.
[
4]
Marseilles, founded by the Phocæans,
25 is built in a stony
region. Its harbour lies beneath a rock, which is shaped
like a theatre, and looks towards the south. It is well surrounded with walls, as well as the whole city, which is of
considerable size. Within the citadel are placed the Ephesium and the temple of the Delphian Apollo. This latter
temple is common to all the Ionians; the Ephesium is the
temple consecrated to Diana of Ephesus. They say that
when the Phocæans were about to quit their country, an oracle
commanded them to take from Diana of Ephesus a conductor
for their voyage. On arriving at Ephesus they therefore inquired how they might be able to obtain from the goddess
what was enjoined them. The goddess appeared in a dream
to Aristarcha, one of the most honourable women of the city,
and commanded her to accompany the Phocæans, and to take
with her a plan of the temple and statues.
26 These things
being performed, and the colony being settled, the Phocæans
built a temple, and evinced their great respect for Aristarcha
by making her priestess. All the colonies [sent out from
Marseilles] hold this goddess in peculiar reverence, preserving
both the shape of the image [of the goddess], and also every
rite observed in the metropolis.
[
5]
The Massilians live under a well-regulated aristocracy.
They have a council composed of 600 persons called timuchi,
27 who enjoy this dignity for life. Fifteen of these preside
over the council, and have the management of current
affairs; these fifteen are in their turn presided over by three
of their number, in whom rests the principal authority; and
these again by one. No one can become a timuchus who has
not children, and who has not been a citizen for three generations.
28 Their laws, which are the same as those of the
Ionians, they expound in public. Their country abounds in
olives and vines, but on account of its ruggedness the wheat
is poor. Consequently they trust more to the resources of
the sea than of the land, and avail themselves in preference of
their excellent position for commerce. Nevertheless they
have been enabled by the power of perseverance to take in
some of the surrounding plains, and also to found cities: of
this number are the cities they founded in Iberia as a rampart against the Iberians, in which they introduced the worship of Diana of Ephesus, as practised in their father-land, with
the Grecian mode of sacrifice. In this number too are Rhoa
29
[and] Agatha,
30 [built for defence] against the barbarians
dwelling around the river Rhone; also Tauroentium,
31 Olbia,
32
Antipolis
33 and Nicæa,
34 [built as a rampart] against the
nation of the Salyes and the Ligurians who inhabit the Alps.
They
35 possess likewise dry docks and armouries. Formerly
they had an abundance of vessels, arms, and machines, both
for the purposes of navigation and for besieging towns; by
means of which they defended themselves against the bar-
barians, and likewise obtained the alliance of the Romans, to
whom they rendered many important services; the Romans
in their turn assisting in their aggrandizement. Sextius, who
defeated the Salyes, founded, not far from Marseilles, a city
36
which was named after him and the hot waters, some of
which they say have lost their heat.
37 Here he established a
Roman garrison, and drove from the sea-coast which leads
from Marseilles to Italy the barbarians, whom the Massilians
were not able to keep back entirely. However, all he accomplished by this was to compel the barbarians to keep at a distance of twelve stadia from those parts of the coast which
possessed good harbours, and at a distance of eight stadia
where it was rugged. The land which they thus abandoned,
he presented to the Massilians. In their city are laid up
heaps of booty taken in naval engagements against those who
disputed the sea unjustly. Formerly they enjoyed singular
good fortune, as well in other matters as also in their amity
with the Romans. Of this [amity] we find numerous signs,
amongst others the statue of Diana which the Romans dedicated on the Aventine mount, of the same figure as that of the
Massilians. Their prosperity has in a great measure decayed
since the war of Pompey against Cæsar, in which they sided
with the vanquished party. Nevertheless some traces of their
ancient industry may still be seen amongst the inhabitants,
especially the making of engines of war and ship-building.
Still as the surrounding barbarians, now that they are under the dominion of the Romans, become daily more civilized, and leave the occupation of war for the business
of towns and agriculture, there is no longer the same
attention paid by the inhabitants of Marseilles to these
objects. The aspect of the city at the present day is a
proof of this. For all those who profess to be men of taste,
turn to the study of elocution and philosophy. Thus this city
for some little time back has become a school for the barbarians, and has communicated to the Galatæ such a taste for
Greek literature, that they even draw contracts on the
Grecian model. While at the present day it so entices the
noblest of the Romans, that those desirous of studying resort
thither in preference to Athens. These the Galatæ observing, and being at leisure on account of the peace, readily
devote themselves to similar pursuits, and that not merely
individuals, but the public generally; professors of the arts
and sciences, and likewise of medicine, being employed not
only by private persons, but by towns for common instruction. Of the wisdom of the Massilians and the simplicity of
their life, the following will not be thought an insignificant
proof. The largest dowry amongst them consists of one hundred gold pieces, with five for dress, and five more for golden
ornaments. More than this is not lawful. Cæsar and his
successors treated with moderation the offences of which they
were guilty during the war, in consideration of their former
friendship; and have preserved to the state the right of
governing according to its ancient laws. So that neither
Marseilles nor the cities dependent on it are under submission to the governors sent [into the Narbonnaise]. So much
for Marseilles.
[
6]
The mountains of the Salyes incline gently from west
to north in proportion as they retire from the sea. The coast
runs west, and extending a short distance, about 100 stadia,
from Marseilles, it begins to assume the character of a gulf at
a considerable promontory near to certain stone quarries, and
extending to the Aphrodisium, the headland which terminates
the Pyrenees,
38 forms the Galatic Gulf,
39 which is also called the
Gulf of Marseilles: it is double, for in its circuit Mount Setium
40
stands out together with the island of Blascon,
41 which is situated close to it, and separates the two gulfs. The larger of these
is properly designated the Galatic Gulf, into which the Rhone
discharges itself; the smaller is on the coast of Narbonne, and
extends as far as the Pyrenees. Narbonne is situated above the
outlets of the Aude
42 and the lake of Narbonne.
43 It is the
principal commercial city on this coast. On the Rhone is
Arelate,
44 a city and emporium of considerable traffic. The
distance between these two cities is nearly equal to that which
separates them from the aforesaid promontories, namely,
Narbonne from the Aphrodisium, and Arelate from the cape
of Marseilles. There are other rivers besides which flow on
either side of Narbonne, some from the Cevennes, others
from the Pyrenees. Along these rivers are situated cities
having but little commerce, and that in small vessels. The
rivers which proceed from the Pyrenees, are the Tet
45 and the
Tech;
46 two cities
47 are built on them, which bear respectively
the same name as the rivers. There is a lake near to Ruscino,
48 and a little above the sea a marshy district full of salt-
springs, which supplies ‘dug mullets,’ for whoever digs two
or three feet and plunges a trident into the muddy water,
will be sure to take the fish, which are worthy of consideration on account of their size; they are nourished in the mud
like eels. Such are the rivers which flow from the Pyrenees
between Narbonne and the promontory on which is built the
temple of Venus. On the other side of Narbonne the following rivers descend from the Cevennes into the sea. The
Aude,
49 the Orbe,
50 and the Rauraris.
51 On one of these
52 is
situated the strong city of Bætera,
53 near to Narbonne; on
the other Agatha,
54 founded by the people of Marseilles.
[
7]
Of one marvel of this sea-coast, namely the ‘dug mullets,’ we have already spoken; we will now mention another,
even more surprising. Between Marseilles and the outlets of
the Rhone there is a circular plain, about 100 stadia distant
from the sea, and about 100 stadia in diameter. It has
received the name of the Stony Plain, from the circumstance of its being covered with stones the size of the fist,
from beneath which an abundant herbage springs up for
the pasturage of cattle. In the midst of it are water, salt-
springs, and salt. The whole both of this district and that
above it is exposed to the wind, but in this plain the black
north,
55 a violent and horrible wind, rages especially: for they
say that sometimes the stones are swept and rolled along, and
men hurled from their carriages and stripped both of their
arms and garments by the force of the tempest. Aristotle
tells us that these stones being cast up by the earthquakes
designated
brastai,56 and falling on the surface of the earth, roll
into the hollow places of the districts; but Posidonius, that
the place was formerly a lake, which being congealed during
a violent agitation, became divided into numerous stones,
like river pebbles or the stones by the sea-shore, which
they resemble both as to smoothness, size, and appearance.
Such are the causes assigned by these two [writers]; however,
neither of their opinions is credible,
57 for these stones could
neither have thus accumulated of themselves, nor yet have
been formed by congealed moisture, but necessarily from the
fragments of large stones shattered by frequent convulsions.
Æschylus having, however, learnt of the difficulty of accounting for it, or having been so informed by another, has explained it away as a myth. He makes Prometheus utter the
following, whilst directing Hercules the road from the Caucasus to the Hesperides:
“‘There you will come to the undaunted army of the Ligurians, where,
resistless though you be, sure am I you will not worst them in battle; for
it is fated that there your darts shall fail you; nor will you be able to
take up a stone from the ground, since the country consists of soft mould;
but Jupiter, beholding your distress, will compassionate you, and overshadowing the earth with a cloud, he will cause it to hail round stones,
which you hurling against the Ligurian army, will soon put them to
flight!’
58”
Posidonius asks, would it not have been better to have
rained down these stones upon the Ligurians themselves, and
thus have destroyed them all, than to make Hercules in need
of so many stones? As for the number, they were necessary
against so vast a multitude; so that in this respect the writer
of the myth seems to me deserving of more credit than he
who would refute it. Further, the poet, in describing it as
fated, secures himself against such fault-finding. For if you
dispute Providence and Destiny, you can find many similar
things both in human affairs and nature, that you would
suppose might be much better performed in this or that
way; as for instance, that Egypt should have plenty of rain
of its own, without being irrigated from the land of Ethiopia. That it would have been much better if Paris had suffered shipwreck on his voyage to Sparta, instead of expiating
his offences after having carried off Helen, and having been
the cause of so great destruction both amongst the Greeks
and Barbarians. Euripides attributes this to Jupiter:
“‘Father Jupiter, willing evil to the Trojans and suffering to the
Greeks, decreed such things.’”
[
8]
As to the mouths of the Rhone, Polybius asserts that
there are but two, and blames Timæus
59 for saying five. Artemidorus says that there are three. Afterwards Marius,
observing that the mouth was becoming stopped up and difficult of entrance on account of the deposits of mud, caused a
new channel to be dug, which received the greater part of the
river into it.
60 This he gave to the people of Marseilles in
recompense for their services in the war against the Ambrones
and Toygeni.
61 This canal became to them a source of much revenue, as they levied a toll from all those who sailed up or down it: notwithstanding, the entrance [to the river] still
continues difficult to navigate, on account of its great impetuosity, its deposits, and the [general] flatness of the country,
so that in foul weather you cannot clearly discern the land
even when quite close. On this account the people of Marseilles, who wished by all means to inhabit the country, set up
towers as beacons; they have even erected a temple to Diana
of Ephesus on a piece of the land, which the mouths of the
rivers have formed into an island. Above the outlets of the
Rhone is a salt-lake which they call Stomalimnè.
62 It abounds
in shell and other fish. There are some who enumerate this
amongst the mouths of the Rhone, especially those who say
that it has seven
63 mouths. But in this they are quite mistaken; for there is a mountain between, which separates the
lake from the river. Such then is the disposition and extent
of the coast from the Pyrenees to Marseilles.
[
9]
The [coast] which extends from this [last city] to the
river Var, and the Ligurians who dwell near it, contains the
Massilian cities of Tauroentium,
64 Olbia,
65 Antipolis,
66 Nicæa,
67
and the sea-port of Augustus Cæsar, called Forum Julium.
68
which is situated between Olbia and Antipolis, and distant
from Marseilles about 600 stadia. The Var is between Antipolis and Nicæa; distant from the one about 20 stadia, from
the other about 60; so that according to the boundary now
marked Nicæa belongs to Italy, although it is a city of the people of Marseilles, for they built these cities [as a defence]
against the barbarians who dwelt higher up the country, in
order to maintain the sea free, as the barbarians possessed the
land. For this [region] is mountainous and fortified by nature,
leaving however a considerable extent of plain country near
Marseilles; but as you proceed towards the east the country is
so hemmed in by the mountains, as scarcely to leave a sufficient
road for passage by the sea-shore. The former districts are
inhabited by the Salyes,
69 the latter by the Ligurians, who
border on Italy, of whom we shall speak afterwards. It should
here be mentioned, that although Antipolis is situated in
the Narbonnaise, and Nicæa in Italy, this latter is dependent on Marseilles, and forms part of that province; while
Antipolis is ranked amongst the Italian cities, and freed from
the government of the Marseillese by a judgment given against
them.
[
10]
Lying off this narrow pass along the coast, as you commence your journey from Marseilles, are the Stœchades islands.
70
Three of' these are considerable, and two small. They are
cultivated by the people of Marseilles. Anciently they contained a garrison, placed here to defend them from the attacks
of pirates, for they have good ports. After the Stœchades
come [the islands of] Planasia
71 and Lero,
72 both of them in-
habited. In Lero, which lies opposite to Antipolis, is a
temple erected to the hero Lero. There are other small
islands not worth mentioning, some of them before Marseilles,
others before the rest of the coast which I have been describing.
As to the harbours, those of the seaport [of Forum-Julium]
73
and Marseilles are considerable, the others are but middling.
Of this latter class is the port Oxybius,
74 so named from the
Oxybian Ligurians.—This concludes what we have to say of
this coast.
[
11]
The country above this is bounded principally by the
surrounding mountains and rivers. Of these the Rhone is
the most remarkable, being both the largest, and capable of
being navigated farther than any of the others, and also receiving into it a greater number of tributaries; of these we
must speak in order. Commencing at Marseilles, and proceeding to the country between the Alps and the Rhone, to
the river Durance, dwell the Salyes for a space of 500 stadia.
From thence you proceed in a ferry-boat to the city of Caballio;
75 beyond this the whole country belongs to the Cavari
as far as the junction of the Isère with the Rhone; it is here
too that the Cevennes approach the Rhone. From the Durance
to this point is a distance of 700 stadia.
76 The Salyes occupy
the plains and mountains above these. The Vocontii, Tricorii, Icomi, and Medylli, lie above the Cavari.
77 Between
the Durance and the Isère there are other rivers which flow
from the Alps into the Rhone; two of these, after having
flowed round the city of the Cavari, discharge themselves by
a common outlet into the Rhone. The Sulgas,
78 which is the
third, mixes with the Rhone near the city of Vindalum,
79
where Cnæus Ænobarbus in a decisive engagement routed
many myriads of the Kelts. Between these are the cities of
Avenio,
80 Arausio,
81 and Aëria,
82 which latter, remarks Artemidorus, is rightly named aërial, being situated in a very lofty
position. The whole of this country consists of plains abounding in pasturage, excepting on the route from Aëria to Avenio,
where there are narrow defiles and woods to traverse. It was
at the point where the river Isère and the Rhone unite near
the Cevennes, that Quintus Fabius Maximus Æmilianus,
83 with
scarcely 30,000 men, cut to pieces 200,000 Kelts.
84 Here he
erected a white stone as a trophy, and two temples, one to
Mars, and the other to Hercules. From the Isère to Vienne,
the metropolis of the Allobroges, situated on the Rhone, the
distance is 320 stadia. Lugdunum
85 is a little above Vienne
at the confluence of the Saone
86 and the Rhone. The distance
by land [from this latter city] to Lugdunum, passing through
the country of the Allobroges, is about 200 stadia, and rather
more by water. Formerly the Allobroges engaged in war,
their armies consisting of many myriads; they now occupy
themselves in cultivating the plains and valleys of the Alps.
They dwell generally in villages, the most notable of them inhabiting Vienne, which was merely a village, although
called the metropolis of their nation; they have now improved
and embellished it as a city; it is situated on the Rhone. So
full and rapid is the descent of this river from the Alps, that
the flow of its waters through Lake Leman may be distinguished for many stadia. Having descended into the plains
of the countries of the Allobroges, and Segusii, it falls into
the Saone, near to Lugdunum, a city of the Segusii.
87 The
Saone rises in the Alps,
88 and separates the Sequani, the Ædui,
and the Lincasii.
89 It afterwards receives the Doubs, a navi-
gable river which rises in the same mountains,
90 still however
preserving its own name, and consisting of the two, mingles
with the Rhone. The Rhone in like manner preserves its
name, and flows on to Vienne. At their rise these three
rivers flow towards the north, then in a westerly direction,
afterwards uniting into one they take another turn and flow
towards the south, and having received other rivers, they
flow in this direction to the sea. Such is the country situated between the Alps and the Rhone.
[
12]
The main part of the country on the other side of the
Rhone is inhabited by the Volcæ, surnamed Arecomisci. Their
naval station is Narbonne, which may justly be called the
emporium of all Gaul, as it far surpasses every other in the
multitude of those who resort
91 to it. The Volcæ border on
tile Rhone, the Salyes and Cavari being opposite to them on
tile other side of the river. However, the name of the Cavari
has so obtained, that all the barbarians inhabiting near now
go by that designation; nay, even those who are no longer
barbarians, but follow the Roman customs, both in their
speech and mode of life, and some of those even who have
adopted the Roman polity. Between the Arecomisci and the
Pyrenees there are some other small and insignificant nations.
Nemausus
92 is the metropolis of the Arecomisci; though far
inferior to Narbonne both as to its commerce, and the number
of foreigners attracted thither, it surpasses that city in the
number of its citizens; for it has under its dominion four and
twenty different villages all well inhabited, and by the same
people, who pay tribute; it likewise enjoys the rights of the
Latin towns, so that in Nemausus you meet with Roman
citizens who have obtained the honours of the ædile and quæstorship, wherefore this nation is not subject to the orders
issued by the prætors from Rome. The city is situated on
the road from Iberia to Italy; this road is very good in
the summer, but muddy and overflowed by the rivers during
winter and spring. Some of these streams are crossed
in ferry-boats, and others by means of bridges constructed
either of wood or stone. The inundations which destroy the
roads are caused by the winter torrents, which sometimes
pour down from the Alps even in summer-time after the
melting of the snows. To perform the route before mentioned,
the shortest way is, as we have said, across the territory of the
Vocontii direct to the Alps; the other, along the coast of
Marseilles and Liguria, is longer, although it offers an easier
passage into Italy, as the mountains are lower. Nemausus
is about 100 stadia distant from the Rhone, situated opposite
to the small town of Tarascon, and about 720 stadia from
Narbonne. The Tectosages,
93 and certain others whom we
shall mention afterwards, border on the range of the Cevennes,
and inhabit its southern side as far as the promontory of
the Volcæ. Respecting all the others we will speak hereafter.
[
13]
But the Tectosages dwell near to the Pyrenees, bordering for a small space the northern side of the Cevennes;
94 the
land they inhabit is rich in gold. It appears that formerly
they were so powerful and numerous, that dissensions having
arisen amongst them, they drove a vast multitude of their
number from their homes; and that these men associating
with others of different nations took possession of Phrygia, next
to Cappadocia, and the Paphlagonians. Of this those who
are now called the Tectosages afford us proof, for [Phrygia contains] three nations, one of them dwelling near to the city of
Ancyra,
95 being called the Tectosages; the remaining two, the
Trocmi and Tolistobogii.
96 The resemblance these nations bear
to the Tectosages is evidence of their having immigrated from
Keltica, though we are unable to say from which district they
came, as there does not appear to be any people at the present
time bearing the name of Trocmi or Tolistobogii, who in-
habit either beyond the Alps, the Alps themselves, or on this
side the Alps. It would seem that continual emigration has
drained them completely from their native country, a circumstance which has occurred to many other nations, as some
say that the Brennus, who led an expedition to Delphi,
97 was a
leader of the Prausi; but we are unable to say where the Prausi
formerly inhabited. It is said that the Tectosages took part in
the expedition to Delphi, and that the treasures found in the city
of Toulouse by the Roman general Cæpio formed a portion of
the booty gained there, which was afterwards increased by
offerings which the citizens made from their own property, and
consecrated in order to conciliate the god.
98 And that it was
for daring to touch these that Cæpio terminated so miserably
his existence, being driven from his country as a plunderer of
the temples of the gods, and leaving behind him his daughters,
who, as Timagenes informs us, having been wickedly violated,
perished miserably. However, the account given by Posidonius is the more credible. He tells us that the wealth found
in Toulouse amounted to somewhere about 15,000 talents, a part
of which was hidden in the chapels, and the remainder in the
sacred lakes, and that it was not coined [money], but gold and
silver in bullion. But at this time the temple of Delphi was
emptied of these treasures, having been pillaged by the
Phocæans at the period of the Sacred war and supposing any
to have been left, it would have been distributed amongst
many. Nor is it probable that the Tectosages returned home,
since they came off miserably after leaving Delphi, and owing
to their dissensions were scattered here and there throughout
the country; there is much more likelihood in the statement
made by Posidonius and many others, that the country
abounding in gold, and the inhabitants being superstitious,
and not living expensively, they hid their treasures in many
different places, the lakes in particular affording them a hiding-
place for depositing their gold and silver bullion. When the
Romans obtained possession of the country they put up these
lakes to public sale, and many of the purchasers found therein
solid masses of silver. In Toulouse there was a sacred temple,
held in great reverence by the inhabitants of the surrounding
country, and on this account loaded with riches, inasmuch as
there were many who offered gifts, and no one dared to touch
them.
[
14]
Toulouse is situated upon the narrowest part of the
isthmus which separates the ocean from the sea of Narbonne;
the breadth of the [isthmus], according to Posidonius, being
less than 3000 stadia. The perfect similarity maintained
throughout this country both in respect to its rivers, and to
the exterior and interior sea,
99 appears to us worthy of especial
notice, as we have said before. This, on reflection, will prove to
be one main cause of the excellence of this country, since the
inhabitants are enabled mutually to communicate, and to procure from each other the necessaries of life; this is peculiarly
the case at the present time, when on account of their leisure
from war they are devoting themselves to agriculture and the
pursuits of social life. In this we are persuaded that we behold the work of Providence; such a disposition of these regions not resulting from chance, but from the thought of some
[intelligence]. The Rhone, for instance, is navigable to a
considerable distance for vessels of heavy burden, which it is
capable of transmitting through various districts of the country by means of other rivers which fall into it, and are likewise fitted for the navigation of large vessels. To the Rhone
succeeds the Saone,
100 and into this latter river falls the Doubs;
thence the merchandise is carried by land to the river Seine;
whence it is transported to the ocean and the [countries of
the] Lexovii and Caleti,
101 the distance thence to Britain being
less than a day's journey. The navigation of the Rhone being
difficult on account of the rapidity of its current, the merchants
prefer to transport in waggons certain of their wares, which
are destined for the Arverni,
102 and the river Loire,
103 notwith-
standing the vicinity of the Rhone in some places, but the
road being level and the distance not far, (about 800 stadia,)
they do not make use of water carriage on account of the
facility of the transport by land, from thence the merchandise is
easily conveyed by the Loire. This river flows from the Cevennes into the ocean. From Narbonne the voyage to the
Aude
104 is short, but the journey by land to the river Garonne
longer, being as much as 700 or 800 stadia. The Garonne likewise flows into the ocean. Such is what we have to say concerning the inhabitants of the Narbonnaise, who were formerly named Kelts. In my opinion the celebrity of the
Kelts induced the Grecians to confer that name on the whole
of the Galatæ; the vicinity of the Massilians may also have
had something to do with it.
105
CHAPTER II.
WE must now speak of the Aquitani and the fourteen
Galatic nations pertaining to them, situated between the Garonne and the Loire, some of which extend to the river Rhone
and the plains of the Narbonnaise. Generally speaking, the
Aquitani may be said to differ from the Galatic race, both as
to form of body and language, resembling more nearly the
Iberians. They are bounded by the Garonne, and dwell between this river and the Pyrenees. There are above twenty
nations which bear the name of Aquitani, small and obscure,
the major part of them dwelling by the ocean, and the remainder in the interior and by the extremities of the Cevennes,
as far as the Tectosages. This district, however, being too
small, they added to it the territory between the Garonne
and the Loire. These rivers are nearly parallel with the
Pyrenees, and form with them two parallelograms, bounded on
the remaining sides by the ocean and the mountains of the
Cevennes.
106 Both of these rivers are navigable for a distance
of about 2000 stadia.
107 The Garonne, after being augmented
by three other rivers,
108 discharges itself into the [ocean] between the [country] of the Bituriges, surnamed the Vivisci,
109
and that of the Santoni;
110 both of them Gallic nations.
The Bituriges are the only foreign people who dwell among
the Aquitani without forming a part of them. Their emporium is Burdegala,
111 situated on a creek formed by the outlets of the river. The Loire discharges itself between the
Pictones and the Namnetæ.
112 Formerly there was an emporium on this river named Corbilon, mentioned by Polybius
when speaking of the fictions of Pytheas. ‘The Marseillese,
[says he,] when interrogated by Scipio
113 at their meeting, had
nothing to tell about Britain worth mentioning, nor yet had
the people of the Narbonnaise, nor those of Corbilon; notwithstanding these were the two principal cities of the district,
Pytheas alone dared to forge so many lies [concerning that
island].’ Mediolanium
114 is the capital of the Santoni. The
part of Aquitaine next the ocean is for the most part sandy
and meagre, producing millet, but barren of all other fruits.
Here is the gulf which, with that on the coast of Narbonne,
forms the isthmus. Both these gulfs
115 go by the name of the
Galatic gulf. The former gulf belongs to the Tarbelli.
116
These people possess the richest gold mines; masses of gold as
big as the fist can contain, and requiring hardly any purifying,
being found in diggings scarcely beneath the surface of the
earth, the remainder consisting of dust and lumps, which likewise require but little working. In the interior and mountainous parts [of Aquitaine] the soil is superior; for instance,
in the district near the Pyrenees belonging to the Convenæ,
117
which name signifies people assembled from different countries
to dwell in one place. Here is the city of Lugdunum,
118 and
the hot springs of the Onesii,
119 which are most excellent for
drinking. The country of the Auscii
120 likewise is fine.
[
2]
The nations between the Garonne and the Loire annexed to the Aquitani, are the Elui,
121 who commence at the
Rhone. After these the Vellæi,
122 who were formerly comprehended amongst the Arverni,
123 but now form a people to
themselves. After these Arverni come the Lemovices,
124 and
Petrocorii,
125 and after them the Nitiobriges,
126 the Cadurci,
127 and
the Bituriges,
128 surnamed Cubi. Along the ocean we meet
with the Santoni, and Pictones,
129 the former dwelling by the
Garonne, as we have stated, and the latter by the Loire. The
Ruteni and the Gabales
130 are in the vicinity of the Narbonnaise.
The Petrocorii and Bituriges-Cubi possess excellent ironworks, the Cadurci linen-factories, and the Ruteni silver-
mines: the Gabales likewise possess silver-mines. On
certain amongst the Aquitani the Romans have conferred the
rights of Latin cities; such for instance as the Auscii, and the
Convenæ.
[
3]
The Arverni are situated along the Loire. Nemossus,
their metropolis, is built on the same river.
131 This river having
flowed past Genabum,
132 an emporium of the Carnutes,
133 situated
about the middle of its course, discharges itself into the ocean.
A great proof of the former power of the Arverni, is the fact
of the frequent wars which they sustained against the Romans,
sometimes with armies of 200,000 men, and sometimes with
double that number, which was the amount of their force
when they fought against divus Cæsar under the command of
Vercingetorix.
134 Before this they had brought 200,000 men
against Maximus Æmilianus, and the same number against
Domitius Ænobarbus. Their battles with Cæsar took place,
one in Gergovia,
135 a city of the Arverni situated on a lofty
mountain, the birth-place of Vercingetorix; the other, near
to Alesia,
136 a city of the Mandubii, who border on the Arverni;
this city is likewise situated on a high hill, surrounded by
mountains, and between two rivers. Here the war was terminated by the capture of their leader. The battle with
Maximus Æmilianus was fought near the confluence of the
Isère and the Rhone, at the point where the mountains of the
Cevennes approach the latter river. That with Domitius was
fought lower down at the confluence of the Sulgas
137 and the
Rhone. The Arverni extended their dominion as far as
Narbonne and the borders of Marseilles, and exercised authority over the nations as far as the Pyrenees, the ocean, and
the Rhine. Luerius,
138 the father of Bituitus who fought against
Maximus and Domitius, is said to have been so distinguished
by his riches and luxury, that to give a proof of his opulence
to his friends, he caused himself to be dragged across a plain
in a car, whilst he scattered gold and silver coin in every
direction for those who followed him to gather up.
CHAPTER III.
NEXT in order after Aquitaine and the Narbonnaise,
is that portion [of Gaul] extending as far as the Rhine from
the river Loire, and the Rhone, where it passes by Lugdunum:
139
in its descent from its source. The upper regions of this
district from the sources of the Rhine and Rhone, nearly to
the middle of the plains, pertain to Lugdunum; the remainder,
with the regions next the ocean, is comprised in another division which belongs to the Belgæ. We will describe the two
together.
[
2]
Lugdunum itself, situated on
140 a hill, at the confluence
of the Saone
141 and the Rhone, belongs to the Romans. It is the
most populous city after Narbonne. It carries on a great
commerce, and the Roman prefects here coin both gold and
silver money. Before this city, at the confluence of the
rivers, is situated the temple dedicated by all the Galatæ in
common to Cæsar Augustus. The altar is splendid, and has
inscribed on it the names of sixty people, and images of them,
one for each, and also another great altar.
142
This is the principal city of the nation of the Segusiani who
lie between the Rhone and the Doubs.
143 The other nations
who extend to the Rhine, are bounded in part by the Doubs,
and in part by the Saone. These two rivers, as said before,
descend from the Alps, and, falling into one stream, flow into
the Rhone. There is likewise another river which has its
sources in the Alps, and is named the Seine.
144 It flows
parallel with the Rhine, through a nation bearing the same
name as itself,
145 and so into the ocean. The Sequani are
bounded on the east by the Rhine, and on the opposite side
by the Saone. It is from them that the Romans procure
the finest salted-pork. Between the Doubs and Saone dwells
the nation of the Ædui, who possess the city of Cabyllinum,
146
situated on the Saone and the fortress of Bibracte.
147 The
Ædui
148 are said to be related to the Romans, and they were
the first to enter into friendship and alliance with them. On
the other side of the Saone dwell the Sequani, who have for
long been at enmity with the Romans and Ædui, having
frequently allied themselves with the Germans in their incursions into Italy. It was then that they proved their strength,
for united to them the Germans were powerful, but when
separated, weak. As for the Ædui, their alliance with the
Romans naturally rendered them the enemies of the Sequani,
149
but the enmity was increased by their contests concerning the
river which divides them, each nation claiming the Saone exclusively for themselves, and likewise the tolls on vessels
passing. However, at the present time, the whole of it is under
the dominion of the Romans.
[
3]
The first of all the nations dwelling on the Rhine are
the Helvetii, amongst whom are the sources of that river in
Mount Adula,
150 which forms part of the Alps. From this
mountain, but in an opposite direction, likewise proceeds the
Adda, which flows towards Cisalpine Gaul, and fills lake
Larius,
151 near to which stands [the city of] Como; thence it
discharges itself into the Po, of which we shall speak afterwards. The Rhine also flows into vast marshes and a great
lake,
152 which borders on the Rhæti and Vindelici,
153 who dwell
partly in the Alps, and partly beyond the Alps. Asinius
says that the length of this river is 6000 stadia, but such is
not the case, for taken in a straight line it does not much
exceed half that length, and 1000 stadia is quite sufficient to
allow for its sinuosities. In fact this river is so rapid that it
is difficult to throw bridges across it, although after its descent
from the mountains it is borne the remainder of the way
through level plains; now how could it maintain its rapidity
and vehemence, if in addition to this level channel, we suppose
it also to have long and frequent tortuosities? Asinius like-
wise asserts that this river has two mouths, and blames those
who say that it has more.
154 This river and the Seine embrace
within their tortuosities a certain extent of country, which
however is not considerable. They both flow from south to
north. Britain lies opposite to them; but nearest to the
Rhine, from which you may see Kent, which is the most easterly
part of the island. The Seine is a little further. It was here
that divus Cæsar established a dock-yard when he sailed to
Britain. The navigable portion of the Seine, commencing
from the point where they receive the merchandise from the
Saone, is of greater extent than the [navigable portions] of
the Loire and Garonne. From Lugdunum
155 to the Seine is [a
distance of] 1000 stadia, and not twice this distance from the
outlets of the Rhone to Lugdunum. They say that the Helvetii,
156 though rich in gold, nevertheless devoted themselves to
pillage on beholding the wealth of the Cimbri,
157 [accumulated
by that means;] and that two out of their three tribes perished
entirely in their military expeditions. However, the multitude
of descendants who sprang from this remainder was proved in
their war with divus Cæsar, in which about 400,000 of their
number were destroyed; the 8000 who survived the war,
being spared by the conqueror, that their country might not
be left desert, a prey to the neighbouring Germans.
158
[
4]
After the Helvetii, the Sequani
159 and Mediornatrici
160
dwell along the Rhine, amongst whom are the Tribocchi,
161 a
German nation who emigrated from their country hither.
Mount Jura, which is in the country of the Sequani, separates
that people from the Helvetii. To the west, above the Helvetii and Sequani, dwell the Ædui and Lingones; the Leuci
and a part of the Lingones dwelling above the Mediomatrici.
The nations between the Loire and the Seine, and beyond the
Rhone and the Saone, are situated to the north near to the
Allobroges,
162 and the parts about Lyons. The most celebrated
amongst them are the Arverni and Carnutes,
163 through both
of whose territories the Loire flows before discharging itself
into the ocean. The distance from the rivers of Keltica to
Britain is 320 stadia; for departing in the evening with the
ebb tide, you will arrive on the morrow at the island about
the eighth hour.
164 After the Mediomatrici and Tribocchi,
the Treviri
165 inhabit along the Rhine; in their country the
Roman generals now engaged in the German war have constructed a bridge. Opposite this place on the other bank of
the river dwelt the Ubii, whom Agrippa with their own consent brought over to this side the Rhine.
166 The Nervii,
167
another German nation, are contiguous to the Treviri; and last
the Menapii, who inhabit either bank of the river near to its
outlets; they dwell amongst marshes and forests, not lofty,
but consisting of dense and thorny wood. Near to these dwell
the Sicambri,
168 who are likewise Germans. The country next
the whole [eastern] bank is inhabited by the Suevi, who are
also named Germans, but are superior both in power and
number to the others, whom they drove out, and who have
now taken refuge on this side the Rhine. Other tribes have
sway in different places; they are successively a prey to the
flames of war, the former inhabitants for the most part being
destroyed.
[
5]
The Senones, the Remi, the Atrebates, and the Eburones dwell west of the Treviri and Nervii.
169 Close to the
Menapii and near the sea are the Morini, the Bellovaci, the
Ambiani, the Suessiones, and the Caleti, as far as the outlet
of the river Seine.
170 The countries of the Morini, the Atre-
bates, and the Eburones are similar to that of the Menapii.
It consists of a forest filled with low trees; of great extent,
but not near so large as writers have described it, viz. 4000
stadia.
171 It is named Arduenna.
172 In the event of warlike
incursions the inhabitants would interweave the flexible
brambly shrubs, thus stopping up the passages [into their
country]. They also fixed stakes in various places, and then
retreated with their whole families into the recesses of the
forest, to small islands surrounded by marshes. During the
rainy season these proved secure hiding-places, but in times
of drought they were easily taken. However, at the present
time all the nations on this side the Rhine
173 dwell in peace
under the dominion of the Romans. The Parisii dwell along
the river Seine, and inhabit an island formed by the river;
their city is Lucotocia.
174 The Meldi and Lexovii border on
the ocean. The most considerable, however, of all these nations are the Remi. Duricortora, their metropolis, is well
populated, and is the residence of the Roman prefects.
CHAPTER IV.
GAUL. THE BELGÆ.
AFTER the nations mentioned come those of the Belgæ,
who dwell next the ocean. Of their number are the Veneti,
175
who fought a naval battle with Cæsar. They had prepared
to resist his passage into Britain, being possessed of the commerce [of that island] themselves. But Cæsar easily gained
the victory, not however by means of his beaks, (for their
ships were constructed of solid wood,)
176 but whenever their
ships were borne near to his by the wind, the Romans rent the
sails by means of scythes fixed on long handles:
177 for the sails
[of their ships] are made of leather to resist the violence of
the winds, and managed by chains instead of cables. They
construct their vessels with broad bottoms and high poops and
prows, on account of the tides. They are built of the wood
of the oak, of which there is abundance. On this account, instead of fitting the planks close together, they leave interstices
between them; these they fill with sea-weed to prevent tile
wood from drying up in dock for want of moisture; for
the sea-weed is damp by nature, but the oak dry and arid.
In my opinion these Veneti were the founders of the Veneti
in the Adriatic, for almost all the other Keltic nations in Italy
have passed over from the country beyond the Alps, as for
instance, the Boii
178 and Senones.
179 They are said to be
Paphlagonians merely on account of a similarity of name.
However, I do not maintain my opinion positively; for in
these matters probability is quite sufficient. The Osismii are
the people whom Pytheas calls Ostimii; they dwell on a
promontory which projects considerably into the ocean, but
not so far as Pytheas and those who follow him assert.
180 As
for the nations between the Seine and the Loire, some are
contiguous to the Sequani, others to the Arverni.
[
2]
The entire race which now goes by the name of Gallic,
or Galatic,
181 is warlike, passionate, and always ready for fighting, but otherwise simple and not malicious. If irritated,
they rush in crowds to the conflict, openly and without any
circumspection; and thus are easily vanquished by those who
employ stratagem. For any one may exasperate them when,
where, and under whatever pretext he pleases; he will al-
ways find them ready for danger, with nothing to support
them except their violence and daring. Nevertheless they
may be easily persuaded to devote themselves to any thing
useful, and have thus engaged both in science and letters.
Their power consists both in the size of their bodies and also
in their numbers. Their frankness and simplicity lead then
easily to assemble in masses, each one feeling indignant at
what appears injustice to his neighbour. At the present
time indeed they are all at peace, being in subjection and living under the command of the Romans, who have subdued
them; but we have described their customs as we understand
they existed in former times, and as they still exist amongst
the Germans. These two nations, both by nature and in
their form of government, are similar and related to each
other. Their countries border on each other, being separated by the river Rhine, and are for the most part similar.
Germany, however, is more to the north, if we compare together the southern and northern parts of the two countries
respectively. Thus it is that they can so easily change their
abode. They march in crowds in one collected army, or rather
remove with all their families, whenever they are ejected by
a more powerful force. They were subdued by the Romans
much more easily than the Iberians; for they began to wage
war with these latter first, and ceased last, having in the
mean time conquered the whole of the nations situated between the Rhine and the mountains of the Pyrenees. For
these fighting in crowds and vast numbers, were overthrown
in crowds, whereas the Iberians kept themselves in reserve,
and broke up the war into a series of petty engagements,
showing themselves in different bands, sometimes here, sometimes there, like banditti. All the Gauls are warriors by
nature, but they fight better on horseback than on foot, and
the flower of the Roman cavalry is drawn from their number.
The most valiant of them dwell towards the north and next
the ocean.
[
3]
Of these they say that the Belgæ are the bravest. They
are divided into fifteen nations, and dwell near the ocean between the Rhine and the Loire, and have therefore sustained
themselves single-handed against the incursions of the Germans, the Cimbri,
182 and the Teutons. The bravest of the
Belgæ are the Bellovaci,
183 and after them the Suessiones. The
amount of their population may be estimated by the fact that
formerly there were said to be 300,000 Belgæ capable of
bearing arms.
184 The numbers of the Helvetii, the Arverni,
and their allies, have already been mentioned. All this is a
proof both of the amount of the population [of Gaul], and, as
before remarked, of the fecundity of their women, and the
ease with which they rear their children. The Gauls wear
the sagum, let their hair grow, and wear short breeches. Instead of tunics they wear a slashed garment with sleeves descending a little below the hips.
185 The wool [of their sheep
is coarse, but long; from it they weave the thick saga called
laines. However, in the northern parts the Romans rear
flocks of sheep which they cover with skins, and which produce very fine wool. The equipment [of the Gauls] is in
keeping with the size of their bodies; they have a long sword
hanging at their right side, a long shield, and lances in proportion, together with a madaris somewhat resembling a javelin; some of them also use bows and slings; they have also a
piece of wood resembling a pilum, which they hurl not out of
a thong, but from their hand, and to a farther distance than
an arrow. They principally make use of it in shooting
birds. To the present day most of them lie on the ground,
and take their meals seated on straw. They subsist principally on milk and all kinds of flesh, especially that of swine,
which they eat both fresh and salted. Their swine live in
the fields, and surpass in height, strength, and swiftness. To
persons unaccustomed to approach them they are almost as
dangerous as wolves. The people dwell in great houses
arched, constructed of planks and wicker, and covered with a
heavy thatched roof. They have sheep and swine in such abundance, that they supply saga and salted pork in plenty, not only
to Rome but to most parts of Italy. Their governments were
for the most part aristocratic; formerly they chose a governor
every year, and a military leader was likewise elected by the
multitude.
186 At the present day they are mostly under sub-
jection to the Romans. They have a peculiar custom in their
assemblies. If any one makes an uproar or interrupts the
person speaking, an attendant advances with a drawn sword,
and commands him with menace to be silent; if he persists,
the attendant does the same thing a second and third time;
and finally, [if he will not obey,] cuts off from his sagum so
large a piece as to render the remainder useless. The labours
of the two sexes are distributed in a manner the reverse of
what they are with us, but this is a common thing with
numerous other barbarians.
[
4]
Amongst [the Gauls] there are generally three divisions
of' men especially reverenced, the Bards, the Vates, and the
Druids. The Bards composed and chanted hymns; the
Vates occupied themselves with the sacrifices and the study
of nature; while the Druids joined to the study of nature
that of moral philosophy. The belief in the justice [of the
Druids] is so great that the decision both of public and private
disputes is referred to them; and they have before now, by
their decision, prevented armies from engaging when drawn
up in battle-array against each other. All cases of murder
are particularly referred to them. When there is plenty of
these they imagine there will likewise be a plentiful harvest.
Both these and the others
187 assert that the soul is indestructi-
ble, and likewise the world, but that sometimes fire and sometimes water have prevailed in making great changes.
188
[
5]
To their simplicity and vehemence, the Gauls join much
folly, arrogance, and love of ornament. They wear golden
collars round their necks, and bracelets on their arms and
wrists, and those who are of any dignity have garments
dyed and worked with gold. This lightness of character
makes them intolerable when they conquer, and throws them
into consternation when worsted. In addition to their folly,
they have a barbarous and absurd custom, common however
with many nations of the north, of suspending the heads of
their enemies from their horses' necks on their return from
tattle, and when they have arrived nailing them as a spectacle to their gates. Posidonius says he witnessed this in
many different places, and was at first shocked, but became
familiar with it in time on account of its frequency. The
beads of any illustrious persons they embalm with cedar, exhibit them to strangers, and would not sell them for their
weight in gold.
189 However, the Romans put a stop to these
customs, as well as to their modes of sacrifice and divination,
which were quite opposite to those sanctioned by our laws.
They would strike a man devoted as an offering in his back
with a sword, and divine from his convulsive throes. Without the Druids they never sacrifice. It is said they have
other modes of sacrificing their human victims; that they
pierce some of them with arrows, and crucify others in their
temples; and that they prepare a colossus of hay and wood,
into which they put cattle, beasts of all kinds, and men, and
then set fire to it.
[
6]
They say that in the ocean, not far from the coast, there
is a small island lying opposite to the outlet of the river
Loire, inhabited by Samnite women who are Bacchantes, and
conciliate and appease that god by mysteries and sacrifices.
No man is permitted to land on the island; and when the
women desire to have intercourse with the other sex, they
cross the sea, and afterwards return again. They have a
custom of once a year unroofing the whole of the temple, and
roofing it again the same day before sun-set, each one
bringing some of the materials. If any one lets her burden
fall, she is torn in pieces by the others, and her limbs carried
round the temple with wild shouts, which they never cease
until their rage is exhausted. [They say] it always happens
that some one drops her burden, and is thus sacrificed.
But what Artenmidorus tells us concerning the crows, partakes still more of fiction. He narrates that on the coast,
washed by the ocean, there is a harbour named the Port of
Two Crows, and that here two crows may be seen with their
right wings white. Those who have any dispute come here,
and each one having placed a plank for himself on a lofty
eminence, sprinkles crumbs thereupon; the birds fly to these,
eat up the one and scatter the other, and he whose crumbs
are scattered gains the cause. This narration has decidedly
too much the air of fiction. What he narrates concerning
Ceres and Proserpine is more credible. He says that there
is an island near Britain in which they perform sacrifices to
these goddesses after the same fashion that they do in Samo-
thrace. The following is also credible, that a tree grows in
Keltica similar to a fig, which produces a fruit resembling a
Corinthian capital, and which, being cut, exudes a poisonous juice which they use for poisoning their arrows. It
is well known that all the Kelts are fond of disputes; and
that amongst them pederasty is not considered shameful.
Ephorus extends the size of Keltica too far, including within
it most of what we now designate as Iberia, as far as Gades,
He states that the people are great admirers of the Greeks,
and relates many particulars concerning them not applicable
to their present state. This is one:—That they take great
care not to become fat or big-bellied, and that if any young
man exceeds the measure of a certain girdle, he is punished.
190
Such is our account of Keltica beyond the Alps.
191
CHAPTER V.
BRITAIN.
BRITAIN is triangular in form; its longest side lies
parallel to Keltica, in length neither exceeding nor falling
short of it; for each of then extends as much as 4300 or
4400 stadia: the side of Keltica extending from the mouths of
the Rhine to the northern extremities of the Pyrenees towards Aquitaine; and that of Britain, which commences at
Kent, its most eastern point, opposite the mouths of the
Rhine, extending to the western extremity of the island,
which lies over against Aquitaine and the Pyrenees. This is
the shortest line from the Pyrenees to the Rhine; the longest
is said to be 5000 stadia; but it is likely that there is some
convergency of the river towards the mountain from a strictly
parallel position, there being an inclination of either toward
the other at the extremities next the ocean.
[
2]
There are four passages commonly used from the continent to the island, namely, from the mouths of the rivers
Rhine, Seine, Loire, and Garonne; but to such as set sail
from the parts about the Rhine, the passage is not exactly
from its mouths, but from the Morini,
192 who border on the
Menapii,
193 among whom also is situated Itium,
194 which divus
Cæsar used as his naval station when about to pass over to
the island: he set sail by night, and arrived the next day about
the fourth hour,
195 having completed a passage of 320 stadia,
and he found the corn in the fields. The greatest portion of
the island is level and woody, although many tracts are hilly.
It produces corn, cattle, gold, silver, and iron, which things
are brought thence, and also skins, and slaves, and dogs
sagacious in hunting; the Kelts use these, as well as their
native dogs, for the purposes of war. The men are taller
than the Kelts, with hair less yellow; they are slighter in their
persons. As an instance of their height, we ourselves saw at
Rome some youths who were taller than the tallest there
by as much as half a foot, but their legs were bowed,
and in other respects they were not symmetrical in conformation. Their manners are in part like those of the
Kelts, though in part more simple and barbarous; insomuch
that some of them, though possessing plenty of milk, have not
skill enough to make cheese, and are totally unacquainted
with horticulture and other matters of husbandry. There
are several states amongst them. In their wars they make
use of chariots for the most part, as do some of the Kelts.
Forests are their cities; for having enclosed an ample space
with felled trees, they make themselves huts therein, and lodge
their cattle, though not for any long continuance. Their atmosphere is more subject to rain than to snow; even in their
clear days the mist continues for a considerable time, inso-
much that throughout the whole day the sun is only visible
for three or four hours about noon; and this must be the case
also amongst the Morini, and the Menapii, and among all the
neighbouring people.
[
3]
Divus Cæsar twice passed over to the island, but quickly
returned, having effected nothing of consequence, nor proceeded far into the country, as well on account of some commotions in Keltica, both among his own soldiers and among
the barbarians, as because of the loss of many of his ships at
the time of the full moon, when both the ebb and flow of
the tides were greatly increased.
196 Nevertheless he gained
two or three victories over the Britons, although he had
transported thither only two legions of his army, and brought
away hostages and slaves and much other booty. At the
present time, however, some of the princes there have, by
their embassies and solicitations, obtained the friendship of
Augustus Cæsar, dedicated their offerings in the Capitol, and
brought the whole island into intimate union with the
Romans. They pay but moderate duties both on the imports
and exports from Keltica; which are ivory bracelets and
necklaces, amber, vessels of glass, and small wares; so that
the island scarcely needs a garrison, for at the least it would
require one legion and some cavalry to enforce tribute from
them; and the total expenditure for the army would be equal
to the revenue collected; for if a tribute were levied, of necessity the imposts must be diminished, and at the same time
some danger would be incurred if force were to be employed.
[
4]
There are also other small islands around Britain; but
one, of great extent, Ierna,
197 lying parallel to it towards the
north, long, or rather, wide; concerning which we have
nothing certain to relate, further than that its inhabitants are
more savage than the Britons, feeding on human flesh, and
enormous eaters, and deeming it commendable to devour their
deceased fathers,
198 as well as openly
199 to have commerce not only with other women, but also with their own mothers and
sisters.
200 But this we relate perhaps without very competent
authority; although to eat human flesh is said to be a Scythian custom; and during the severities of a siege, even the
Kelts, the Iberians, and many others, are reported to have
done the like.
201
[
5]
The account of Thulè is still more uncertain, on account
of its secluded situation; for they consider it to be the
northernmost of all lands of which the names are known.
The falsity of what Pytheas has related concerning this and
neighbouring places, is proved by what he has asserted of well-
known countries. For if, as we have shown, his description
of these is in the main incorrect, what he says of far distant
countries is still more likely to be false.
202 Nevertheless, as far
as astronomy and the mathematics are concerned, he appears
to have reasoned correctly, that people bordering on the frozen
zone would be destitute of cultivated fruits, and almost de-
prived of the domestic animals; that their food would consist of millet, herbs, fruits, and roots; and that where there
was corn and honey they would make drink of these. That
having no bright sun, they would thresh their corn, and store
it in vast granaries, threshing-floors being useless on account
of the rain and want of sun.
CHAPTER VI.
THE ALPS.
HAVING described Keltica beyond the Alps,
203 and the
nations who inhabit the country, we must now speak of the
Alps themselves and their inhabitants, and afterwards of the
whole of Italy; observing in our description such arrangement as the nature of the country shall point out.
The Alps do not commence at Monœci Portus,
204 as some have
asserted, but from the region whence the Apennines take
their rise about Genoa, a mercantile city of the Ligurians,
and at the marshes named Sabatorum Vada;
205 for the Apen-
nines take their rise near Genoa, and the Alps near Sabatorum Vada. The distance between Genoa and the Sabatorum Vada is about 260 stadia. About 370 stadia farther
on is the little city of Albingaunum,
206 inhabited by Ligurians
who are called Ingauni. From thence to the Monœci Portus is
480 stadia. In the interval between is the very considerable
city of Albium Intemelium,
207 inhabited by the Intemelii. These
names are sufficient to prove that the Alps commence at the
Sabbatorum Vada. For the Alps were formerly called Albia
and Alpionia,
208 and at the present day the high mountain in the
country of the Iapodes,
209 next to Ocra and the Alps, is named
Albius, showing that the Alps extend so far.
[
2]
Now since the Ligurians were divided into Ingauri
and Intemelii, it was natural that their maritime colonies
should be distinguished, one by the name of Albium Intemelium, Alpine as it were, and the other by the more concise
form Albingaunum.
210 To these two tribes of Ligurians already
mentioned, Polybius adds those of the Oxybii and Deciates.
211
The whole coast from Monœci Portus to Tyrrhenia is
continuous, and without harbours excepting some small
roads and anchorages. Above it rise the rugged precipices of
the Alpine range, leaving but a narrow passage along the
sea. This district, but particularly the mountains, is inhabited
by Ligurians, principally subsisting on the produce of their
herds, and milk, and a drink made of barley. There is plenty
of wood here for the construction of ships; the trees grow to
a vast size, some of them having been found eight feet in
diameter. Much of the wood is veined, and not inferior to
cedar-wood for cabinet work. This wood, together with the
produce of their cattle, hides, and honey, they transport to
the mart of Genoa, receiving in exchange for them the oil
and wine of Italy; for the little [wine] which their country
produces is harsh and tastes of pitch. Here are bred the
horses and mules known as ginni, and here too are wrought
the Ligurian tunics and saga. In their country likewise there
is plenty of lingurium, called by some electrum.
212 They use
but few cavalry in war; their infantry are good, and excellent
slingers. Some have thought that their brazen shields prove
these people to be of Grecian origin.
[
3]
The Monœci Portus is merely a roadstead, not capable
of containing either many or large vessels. Here is a temple
dedicated to Hercules Monœcus.
213 The name seems to show
it probable that the Massilian voyages along the coast extended as far as here. Monœci Portus is distant from Antipolis rather more than 200 stadia. The Salyes occupy the
region from thence to Marseilles, or a little farther; they
inhabit the Alps which lie above that city, and a portion of
the sea-coast, where they intermingle with the Greeks. The
ancient Greeks gave to the Salyes the name of Ligyes,
214 and to
the country which was in the possession of the Marseillese,
that of Ligystica.
215 The later Greeks named them Kelto-
Ligyes,
216 and assigned to them the whole of the plains extending as far as Luerion
217 and the Rhone. They are divided
into ten cantons, and are capable of raising troops not only of
infantry, but of cavalry also. These people were the first of
the Transalpine Kelts whom the Romans subdued after maintaining a lengthened war against them and the Ligurians.
They closed [against the Romans] all the roads into Iberia
along the sea-coast, and carried on a system of pillage both
by sea and land. Their strength so increased that large
armies were scarcely able to force a passage. And after a
war of eighty years, the Romans were hardly able to obtain
a breadth of twelve stadia for the purpose of making a public
road. After this, however, the Romans subdued the whole of
them, and established among them a regular form of government, and imposed a tribute.
218
[
4]
After the Salyes, the Albienses, the Albiœci,
219 and the
Vocontii inhabit the northern portion of the mountains.
The Vocontii extend as far as the Allobriges, and occupy
vast valleys in the depths of the mountains, not inferior to
those inhabited by the Allobriges. Both the Allobriges and
Ligurians are subject to the pretors sent into the Narbonnaise,
but the Vocontii are governed by their own laws, as we have
said of the Volcæ of Nemausus.
220 Of the Ligurians between
the Var and Genoa, those along the sea are considered Italians;
while the mountaineers are governed by a prefect of the
equestrian order, as is the case in regard to other nations
wholly barbarous.
[
5]
After the Vocontii, are the Iconii, the Tricorii, and the
Medulli; who inhabit the loftiest ridges of the mountains,
for they say that some of them have an almost perpendicular
ascent of 100 stadia, and a similar descent to the frontiers
of Italy. In these high-lands there is a great lake; there
are also two springs not far distant from each other; one
of these gives rise to the Durance, which flows like a
torrent into the Rhone, and to the Durias,
221 which flows in
an opposite direction; for it mingles with the Po after
having pursued its course through the country of the Salassi
222 into Cisalpine Keltica. From the other source, but
much lower down, rises the Po itself, large and rapid,
which as it advances becomes still vaster, and at the same
time more gentle. As it reaches the plains it increases in
breadth, being augmented by numerous [other rivers], and
thus it becomes less impetuous in its course, and its current
is weakened. Having become the largest river in Europe,
with the exception of the Danube,
223 it discharges itself into the
Adriatic Sea. The Medulli are situated considerably above
the confluence of the Isère and the Rhone.
[
6]
On the opposite side of the mountains, sloping towards
Italy, dwell the Taurini,
224 a Ligurian nation, together with
certain other Ligurians. What is called the land of Ideonnus
225 and Cottius belongs to these Ligurians. Beyond them
and the Po are the Salassi; above whom in the summits [of the
Alps] are the Kentrones, the Catoriges, the Veragri, the
Nantuatæ,
226 Lake Leman,
227 traversed by the Rhone, and the
sources of that river. Not far from these are the sources of
the Rhine, and Mount Adulas,
228 from whence the Rhine flows
towards the north; likewise the Adda,
229 which flows in an
opposite direction, and discharges itself into Lake Larius,
230
near to Como. Lying above Como, which is situated at the
roots of the Alps, on one side are the Rhæti and Vennones
towards the east,
231 and on the other the Lepontii, the Tridentini, the Stoni,
232 and numerous other small nations, poor and
addicted to robbery, who in former times possessed Italy.
At the present time some of them have been destroyed, and
the others at length civilized, so that the passes over the
mountains through their territories, which were formerly few
and difficult, now run in every direction, secure from any
danger of these people, and as accessible as art can make them.
For Augustus Cæsar not only destroyed the robbers, but improved the character of the roads as far as practicable, although
he could not every where overcome nature, on account of the
rocks and immense precipices; some of which tower above
the road, while others yawn beneath; so that departing ever
so little [from the path], the traveller is in inevitable danger
of falling down bottomless chasms. In some places the road
is so narrow as to make both the foot traveller and his beasts
of burden, who are unaccustomed to it, dizzy; but the animals
of the district will carry their burdens quite securely. These
things however are beyond remedy, as well as the violent
descent of vast masses of congealed snow from above, capable
of overwhelming a whole company at a time, and sweeping
them into the chasms beneath. Numerous masses lie one upon
the other, one hill of congealed snow being formed upon another, so that the uppermost mass is easily detached at any time
from that below it, before being perfectly melted by the sun.
[
7]
A great part of the country of the Salassi lies in a deep
valley, formed by a chain of mountains which encloses the
district on either side; a part of them however inhabit the
233
overhanging ridges. The route of those who are desirous of
passing from Italy over these mountains, lies through the
aforesaid valley. Beyond this the road separates into two.
The one which passes through the mountain peaks, known as
the Pennine Alps, cannot be traversed by carriages; the
other, which runs through the country of the Centrones, lies
more to the west.
234 The country of the Salassi contains gold
mines, of which formerly, in the days of their power, they
were masters, as well as of the passes. The river Doria
Baltea
235 afforded them great facility in obtaining the metal by
[supplying them with water] for washing the gold, and they
have emptied the main bed by the numerous trenches cut for
drawing the water to different places. This operation, though
advantageous in gold hunting, was injurious to the agriculturists below, as it deprived them of the irrigation of a river,
which, by the height of its position, was capable of watering
their plains. This gave rise to frequent wars between the
two nations; when the Romans gained the dominion, the
Salassi lost both their gold works and their country, but as
they still possessed the mountains, they continued to sell
water to the public contractors of the gold mines; with whom
there were continual disputes on account of the avarice of the
contractors, and thus the Roman generals sent into the country were ever able to find a pretext for commencing war.
And, until very recently, the Salassi at one time waging war
against the Romans, and at another making peace, took occasion to inflict numerous damages upon those who crossed over
their mountains, by their system of plundering; and even
exacted from Decimus Brutus, on his flight from Mutina,
236 a
drachm per man. Messala, likewise, having taken up his
winter quarters in their vicinity, was obliged to pay them,
both for his fire-wood, and for the elm-wood for making javelins for the exercise of his troops. In one instance they
plundered the treasures of Cæsar,
237 and rolled down huge
masses of rock upon the soldiers under pretence of making
roads, or building bridges over the rivers. Afterwards
Augustus completely overthrew them, and carried them to
Eporedia,
238 a Roman colony which had been planted as a
bulwark against the Salassi, although the inhabitants were
able to do but little against them until the nation was destroyed; their numbers amounted to 36,000 persons, besides 8000
men capable of bearing arms. Terentius Varro, the general
who defeated them, sold them all by public auction, as enemies
taken in war. Three thousand Romans sent out by Augustus
founded the city of Augusta,
239 on the spot where Varro had
encamped, and now the whole surrounding country, even to
the summits of the mountains, is at peace.
[
8]
Beyond, both the eastern parts of the mountains, and
those likewise inclining to the south, are possessed by the
Rhæti and Vindelici, who adjoin the Helvetii and Boii, and
press upon their plains. The Rhæti extend as far as Italy
above Verona and Como. The Rhætian wine, which is
esteemed not inferior to the finest wines of Italy, is produced
[from vines which grow] at the foot of the mountains. These
people extend also as far as the districts through which the
Rhine flows. The Lepontii and Camuni are of their nation.
The Vindelici and Norici possess, for the most part, the
opposite side of the mountains together with the Breuni and
Genauni, who form part of the Illyrians.
240 All these people
were continually making incursions both into the neighbouring parts of Italy, and into [the countries] of the Helvetii,
the Sequani,
241 the Boii, and the Germans.
242 But the Licattii,
the Clautinatii, and the Vennones
243 proved the boldest amongst
the Vindelici; and the Rucantii and Cotuantii amongst the
Rhæti. Both the Estiones and Brigantii belong to the
Vindelici; their cities are Brigantium, Campodunum, and
Damasia, which may be looked upon as the Acropolis of the
Licattii. It is narrated, as an instance of the extreme brutality
of these robbers towards the people of Italy, that when they
have taken any village or city, they not only put to death all
the men capable of bearing arms, but likewise all the male
children, and do not even stop here, but murder every pregnant woman who, their diviners say, will bring forth a male
infant.
244
[
9]
After these come certain of the Norici, and the Carni,
who inhabit the country about the Adriatic Gulf and Aquileia. The Taurisci belong to the Norici. Tiberius and his
brother Drusus in one summer put a stop to their lawless incursions, so that now for three and thirty years
245 they have
lived quietly and paid their tribute regularly. Throughout
the whole region of the Alps there are hilly districts capable
of excellent cultivation, and well situated valleys; but the
greater part, especially the summits of the mountains inhabited
by the robbers, are barren and unfruitful, both on account of
the frost and the ruggedness of the land. On account of the
want of food and other necessaries the mountaineers have
sometimes been obliged to spare the inhabitants of the plains,
that they might have some people to supply them; for these
they have given them in exchange, resin, pitch, torches,
wax, cheese, and honey, of which they have plenty. In the
Mount Apennine
246 which lies above the Carni there is a lake
which runs out into the Isar, which river, after receiving
another river, the Aude,
247 discharges itself into the Adriatic.
From this lake there is also another river, the Atesinus, which
flows into the Danube.
248 The Danube itself rises in the
mountains which are split into many branches and numerous
summits. For from Liguria to here the summits of the Alps
stretch along continuously, presenting the appearance of one
mountain; but after this they rise and fall in turns, forming
numerous ridges and peaks. The first of these is beyond the
Rhine and the lake
249 inclining towards the east, its ridge
moderately elevated; here are the sources of the Danube
near to the Suevi and the forest of Hercynia.
250 The other
branches extend towards Illyria and the Adriatic, such are
the Mount Apennine, already mentioned, Tullum and Phligadia,
251 the mountains lying above the Vindelici from whence
proceed the Duras,
252 the Clanis,
253 and many other rivers which
discharge themselves like torrents into the current of the
Danube.
[
10]
Near to these regions dwell the Iapodes, (a nation now
mixed with the Illyrians, and Kelts,) close to them is [the
Mount] Ocra.
254 Formerly the Iapodes were numerous, in-
habiting either side of the mountain, and were notorious for
their predatory habits, but they have been entirely reduced
and brought to subjection by Augustus Cæsar. Their cities are
Metulum,
255 Arupenum,
256 Monetium,
257 and Vendon.
258 After these
is the city of Segesta,
259 [situated] in a plain. Near to it flows the river Save,
260 which discharges itself into the Danube.
This city lies in an advantageous position for carrying on war
against the Dacians.
261 Ocra forms the lowest portion of the Alps,
where they approach the territory of the Carni, and through
which they convey the merchandise of Aquileia in waggons to
Pamportus.
262 This route is not more than 400 stadia. From
thence they convey it by the rivers as far as the Danube and
surrounding districts, for a navigable river
263 which flows out of
Illyria, passes by Pamportus, and discharges itself into the Save,
so that the merchandise may easily be carried down both to
Segesta, and to the Pannonians, and Taurisci.
264 It is near
this city,
265 that the Kulp
266 falls into the Save. Both of these
rivers are navigable, and flow down from the Alps. The
Alps contain wild horses and cattle, and Polybius asserts that
an animal of a singular form is found there; it resembles a
stag except in the neck and hair, which are similar to those
of a wild boar; under its chin it has a tuft of hair about a
span long, and the thickness of the tail of a young horse.
267
[
11]
One of the passages over the mountains from Italy into
Transalpine and northern Keltica is that which passes through
the country of the Salassi, and leads to Lugdunum.
268 This
[route] is divided into two ways, one practicable for carriages,
but longer, which crosses the country of the Centrones, the
other steep and narrow, but shorter; this crosses the Pennine
[Alps]. Lugdunum is situated in the midst of the country,
serving as an Acropolis, both on account of the confluence of
the rivers, and of its being equally near to all parts. It was
on this account that Agrippa cut all the roads from this [as
a centre] one running through the mountains of the Cevennes to the Santones
269 and Aquitaine,
270 another towards the
Rhine; a third towards the ocean by the country of the
Bellovaci
271 and Ambiani,
272 and a fourth towards the Narbonnaise and the coast of Marseilles.
273 The traveller, also, leaving
Lugdunum and the country above on his left, may pass over
the Pennine Alps themselves, the Rhone, or Lake Leman, into
the plains of the Helvetii, whence there is a passage through
Mount Jura into the country of the Sequani, and Lingones;
here the road separates into two routes, one running to the
Rhine, and the other
274 to the ocean.
[
12]
Polybius tells us that in his time the gold mines were
so rich about Aquileia, but particularly in the countries of
the Taurisci Norici, that if you dug but two feet below the
surface you found gold, and that the diggings [generally] were
not deeper than fifteen feet. In some instances the gold was
found pure in lumps about the size of a bean or lupin, and
which diminished in the fire only about one eighth; and in
others, though requiring more fusion, was still very profitable.
Certain Italians
275 aiding the barbarians in working [the
mines], in the space of two months the value of gold was
diminished throughout the whole of Italy by one third. The
Taurisci on discovering this drove out their fellow-labourers,
and only sold the gold themselves. Now, however, the
Romans possess all the gold mines. Here, too, as well as in
Iberia, the rivers yield gold-dust as well as the diggings,
though not in such large quantities. The same writer, speak-
ing of the extent and height of the Alps, compares with them
the largest mountains of Greece, such as Taygetum,
276 Lycæum,
277 Parnassus,
278 Olympus,
279 Pelion,
280 Ossa,
281 and of Thrace, as
the Hæmus, Rhodope, and Dunax, saying that an active
person might almost ascend any of these in a single day,
and go round them in the same time, whereas five days
would not be sufficient to ascend the Alps, while their length
along the plains extends 2200 stadia.
282 He only names four
passes over the mountains, one through Liguria close to the
Tyrrhenian Sea,
283 a second through the country of the Taurini,
284 by which Hannibal passed, a third through the country
of the Salassi,
285 and a fourth through that of the Rhæti,
286 all
of them precipitous. In these mountains, he says, there are
numerous lakes; three large ones, the first of which is Benacus,
287 500 stadia in length and 130 in breadth, the river
Mincio flows from it. The second is the Verbanus,
288 400
stadia [in length], and in breadth smaller than the preceding;
the great river Ticino
289 flows from this [lake]. The third
is the Larius,
290 its length is nearly 300 stadia, and its breadth
30, the river Adda flows from it. All these rivers flow
into the Po. This is what we have to say concerning the
Alpine mountains.
