The annexation of
Texas caused an immediate rupture between the
United States and
Mexico, for the latter claimed
Texas as a part of her territory, notwithstanding its independence had been acknowledged by the
United States,
England,
France, and other governments.
When Congress had adopted the joint resolution for the annexation of
State of Texas (q. v.) to the
United States,
General Almonte, the
Mexican minister at
Washington, protested against the measure and demanded his passports.
On June 4 following the
President of
Mexico (Herrara) issued a proclamation declaring the right of
Mexico to the
Texan territory, and his determination to defend it by arms, if necessary.
At the same time there existed another cause for serious dispute between the
United States and
Mexico.
The latter had been an unjust and injurious neighbor ever since the establishment of republican government in
Mexico in 1824.
Impoverished by civil war, it did not hesitate to replenish its treasury by plundering American vessels in the
Gulf of Mexico, or by confiscating the property of American merchants within its borders.
The United States government remonstrated in vain until 1831, when a treaty was made and promises of redress were given.
These promises were never fulfilled.
Robberies continued; and, in 1840, the aggregate value of property belonging to
Americans which had been appropriated by the Mexicans amounted to more than $6,000,000. The claim for this amount was unsatisfied when the annexation of
Texas took place in 1845.
Being fully aware of the hostile feelings of the Mexicans,
President Polk ordered (July, 1845)
Gen. Zachary Taylor, then in command of the United States troops in the
Southwest, to go to
Texas and take a position as near the
Rio Grande as prudence would allow.
This force, about 1,500 strong, was called the Army of Occupation for the defence of
Texas.
At the same time a strong naval force, under
Commodore Conner, sailed to the
Gulf of Mexico to protect American interests there.
In September
Taylor formed a camp at
Corpus Christi, and there remained during the
autumn and
winter.
He was ordered, Jan. 13, 1846, to move from his camp at
Corpus Christi to the
Rio Grande, opposite the
Spanish city of
Matamoras, because
Mexican troops were gathering in that direction.
This was disputed territory between
Texas and the neighboring province of Tamaulipas.
When he encamped at
Point Isabel, March 25, on the coast, 28 miles from
Matamoras,
Taylor was warned by the Mexicans that he was upon foreign soil.
He left his stores at
Point Isabel, under a guard of 450 men, and with the remainder of his army advanced to the bank of the
Rio Grande, where he established a camp and began the erection of a fort, which he named
Fort Brown, in honor of
Major Brown, in command there.
The
Mexicans were so eager for war that, because
President Herrera was anxious for peace with the
United States, they elected
General Paredes to succeed him. The latter sent
General Ampudia, with a large force, to drive the
Americans beyond the
Nueces.
This officer demanded of
General Taylor, April 12, the withdrawal of his troops within twenty-four hours.
Taylor refused, and continued to strengthen
Fort Brown.
Ampudia hesitated, when
General Arista was put in his place as commander-in-chief of the
Northern Division of the Army of Mexico.
He was strongly reinforced, and the position of the Army of Occupation became critical.
Parties of armed Mexicans soon got between
Point Isabel and
Fort Brown and cut off all intercommunication.
A reconnoitring party under
Captain Thornton was surprised and captured (April 24) on the
Texas side of the
Rio Grande, when
Lieutenant Mason was killed.
Having completed his fort,
Taylor hastened to the relief of
Point Isabel, May 1, which was menaced by a Mexican force, 1,500 strong, collected in the rear.
He reached
Point Isabel the same day. This departure of
Taylor from the
Rio Grande emboldened the Mexicans, who opened fire upon
Fort Brown, May 3, from
Matamoras, and a large body crossed the river to attack it in the rear.
Taylor had left orders that in case of an attack, if peril appeared imminent, signal guns must be fired, and he would hasten to the relief of the fort.
On the 6th, when the Mexicans began to plant cannon in the rear and
Major Brown was mortally wounded, the signals were given, and
Taylor marched for the
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Rio Grande on the evening of the 7th, with a little more than 2,000 men, having been reinforced by Texan volunteers and marines from the fleet.
At noon the next day he fought and defeated
Arista, with 6,000 troops, at
Palo Alto (q. v.). At 2 A. M. the next day his wearied army was summoned to renew its march, and, towards evening, fought a more sanguinary battle with the same
Mexicans, at
Resaca De La Palma (q. v.). Again the
Americans were victorious.
The
Mexican army in
Texas was now completely broken up.
Arista saved himself by solitary flight
across the
Rio Grande.
The garrison at
Fort Brown was relieved.
In the mean while, Congress had declared, May 11, 1846, that, “by the act of the republic of
Mexico, a state of war exists between that government and the
United States,” and authorized the
President to raise 50,000 volunteers.
They also (May 13) appropriated $10,000,000 for carrying on the war. The
Secretary of War and
General Scott planned a magnificent campaign.
On May 23 the
Mexican government also declared war.
General Taylor crossed the
Rio Grande, drove the
Mexican troops from
Matamoras, took possession of the town (May 18), and remained there until August, when he received reinforcements and orders from his government.
Then, with more than 6,000 troops, he moved on
Monterey, defended by
General Ampudia, with more than 9,000 troops.
It was a very strongly built town, at the foot of the great Sierra
Madre.
A siege commenced Sept. 21 and ended with the capture of the place on the 24th.
General Wool had been directed to muster and prepare for service the volunteers gathered at
Bexar, in Texas, and by the middle of July 12,000 of them had been mustered into the service.
Of these, 9,000 were sent to reinforce
Taylor.
Wool went up the
Rio Grande with about 3,000 troops, crossed the river at
Presidio, penetrated
Mexico, and, in the last of October, reached
Monclova, 70 miles northwest of
Monterey.
He pushed on to Coahuila, where he obtained ample supplies for his own and
Taylor's troops.
General Taylor had agreed to an armistice at
Monterey.
This was ended Nov. 13, by order of his government, when, leaving
General Butler in command at
Monterey, he marched to Vic-
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toria, the capital of Tamaulipas, with the intention of attacking
Tampico, on the coast.
Meanwhile,
General Worth, with 900 men, had taken possession of
Saltillo (Nov. 15), the capital of Coahuila.
Taylor, ascertaining that
Tampico had already surrendered to the
Americans (Nov. 14), and that
Santa Ana was collecting a large force at
San Luis Potosi, returned to
Monterey to reinforce Worth, if necessary.
Worth was joined at
Saltillo by
Wool's division (Dec. 20), and
Taylor again advanced to
Victoria (Dec. 29). Just as he was about to proceed to a vigorous campaign,
Taylor received orders from
General Scott, at
Vera Cruz, to send the latter a large portion of his (
Taylor's) best officers and troops, and to act only on the defensive.
This was a severe trial for
Taylor, but he cheerfully obeyed.
He and
Wool were left with an aggregate force of only about 5,000 men, of whom only 500 were regulars, to oppose 20,000, then gathering at
San Luis Potosi, under
Santa Ana.
Taylor and
Wool united their forces, Feb. 4, 1847, on the
San Luis road, determined to fight the Mexicans, who were approaching.
The opportunity was not long delayed.
The
Americans fell back to
Buena Vista, within 11 miles of
Saltillo, and encamped in a narrow defile, and there a severe battle was fought, Feb. 23, resulting in victory for the
Americans.
Gen. Stephen W. Kearny (q. v.) was placed in command of the Army of the West, with instructions to conquer
New Mexico and
California.
He left
Fort Leavenworth in June, 1846, and, after a journey of 900 miles over the great plains and among mountain ranges, he arrived at
Santa Fe, Aug. 18, having met with no resistance.
Appointing
Charles Brent governor, he marched towards
California, and was soon met by an express from
Commodore Robert F. Stockton (q. v.), and
Lieut.-Col. John C. Fremont (q. v.), informing him that the conquest of
California had been achieved.
Fremont and a party of explorers, sixty in number, joined by American settlers in the vicinity of
San Francisco, had captured a Mexican force at Sonoma pass, June 15, 1846, with the garrison, nine cannon, and 250 muskets.
He then defeated another force at
Sonoma, and drove the
Mexican authorities out of that region of country.
On July 5 the
Americans in
California declared themselves independent, and put
Fremont at the head of affairs.
On the 7th
Commodore Sloat, with a squadron, bombarded and captured
Monterey, on the coast; on the 9th
Commodore Montgomery took possession of
San Francisco.
Commodore Stockton and
Colonel Fremont took possession of
Los Angeles on Aug. 17, and there they were joined by
Kearny, who had sent the main body of his troops back to
Santa Fe. Fremont went to
Monterey, and there assumed the office of governor, and proclaimed, Feb. 8, 1847, the annexation of
California to the
United States.
Meanwhile,
Colonel Doniphan, detached
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by
Kearny, with 1,000
Missouri volunteers, marched towards
Chihuahua to join
General Wool.
In two engagements with Mexicans he was victorious, and entered the capital of
Chihuahua in triumph, March 2, and took possession of the province.
After resting six weeks, he joined
Wool at
Saltillo, and thence returned to New Orleans, having made a perilous march from the
Mississippi of about 5,000 miles.
The conquest of all
northern Mexico was now complete, and
General Scott was on his march for the capital.
He had landed at
Vera Cruz, March 9, with an army of 13,000 men. It had been borne thither by a powerful squadron, commanded by
Commodore Conner.
He invested the city of
Vera Cruz (q. v.) on the 13th, and on the 27th it was surrendered with the castle of
San Juan de Ulloa.
Scott took possession of the city two days afterwards, and, on April 8, the advance of his army, under
General Twiggs, began its march for the capital, by way of
Jalapa.
Santa Ana had advanced, with 12,000 men, to meet the invaders, and had taken post at
Cerro Gordo, a difficult mountain pass at the foot of the
Eastern Cordilleras.
Scott had followed
Twiggs with the rest of his army, and, on April 18, defeated the Mexicans at that strong pass, and, pushing forward, entered
Jalapa on the 19th.
On the 22d the
American flag was unfurled over the
Castle of Perote, on the summit of the
Eastern Cordilleras, 50 miles from
Jalapa.
This was considered the strongest fortress in
Mexico, excepting
Vera Cruz.
It was surrendered without resistance, and with it fifty-four pieces of cannon, some mortars, and a large amount of munitions of war.
Onward the victorious army marched, and entered the fortified city of
Puebla, May 15, a city of 80,000 inhabitants; and there the army rested until August.
Being reinforced,
Scott then pushed on towards the capital.
From that very spot on the lofty
Cordilleras,
Cortez first looked down upon the quiet valley of
Mexico, centuries before.
Scott now beheld that
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spacious panorama, the seat of the capital of the Aztecs—the “Halls of the Montezumas.”
He pushed cautiously forward, and approached the stronghold before the city.
The fortified camp of Contreras was taken by the
Americans on Aug. 20.
Then the strong fortress of
San Antonio yielded the same day. The heights of
Churubusco were attacked.
Santa Ana advanced, and soon the whole region became one great battle-field.
Churubusco was taken, and
Santa Ana fled towards the capital.
A Mexican army, 30,000 strong, had in a single day been broken up by another less than one-third its strength in number, and at almost every step the
Americans were successful.
Full 4,000 Mexicans were killed and wounded, 3,000 were made prisoners, and thirty-seven pieces of cannon were captured on that memorable day. The
Americans had lost 1,100 in killed and wounded.
They might now have entered the city of
Mexico in triumph, but
General Scott preferred to bear the olive-branch rather than the palm.
As he advanced to Tacuba, Aug. 21, only 7 miles from the city, he met a deputation from
Santa Ana to ask for an armistice, preparatory to negotiations for peace.
It was granted.
Nicholas P. Trist (q. v.), appointed by the United States government to treat for peace, was present.
The treacherous
Santa Ana had made this only a pretext to gain time to strengthen the defences of the city.
When the trick was discovered,
Scott declared the armistice at an end, and advanced upon the city.
Less than 4,000
Americans attacked
Santa Ana with 14,000 Mexicans, Sept. 8, at Molino del
Rey (the
King's Mill), near
Chapultepec.
The combatants fought desperately and suffered dreadfully.
The
Mexicans left almost 1,000 dead on the field; the
Americans lost 800.
The lofty battlemented hill of
Chapultepec was doomed.
It was the last place to be defended outside of the city.
It was attacked by mortar and cannon shells and round-shot, Sept. 12, and the assault continued until the next day, when the
American flag waved in triumph over its shattered castle.
The
Mexicans fled into the city, pursued by the
Americans to the very gates.
That night
Santa Ana and his troops, with the
civil officers, fled from the city, and, at 4 A. M. the next day, a deputation from the municipal authorities waited upon
Scott, begging him to spare the town and treat for peace.
He would make no terms, but entered the city, Sept. 13, a conqueror; and from the grand plaza he proclaimed the conquest of the republic of
Mexico.
Santa. Ana made some feeble efforts to regain lost power, but failed.
He was defeated in two slight battles.
Before the close of October he was stripped of every command, and fled for safety to the shores of the
Gulf.
The president of the Mexican Congress assumed provisional authority, and, on Feb. 2, 1848, that body concluded a treaty of peace with the
United States commissioners at
Guadalupe-Hidalgo.
It was ratified by both governments, and, on July 4, 1848,
President Polk proclaimed it. It stipulated the evacuation of
Mexico by the
American troops within three months; the payment of $3,000,000 in hand, and $12,000,000 in four annual instalments, by the
United States to
Mexico, for
New Mexico and
California, which had become territory of the
United States by conquest, and, in addition, to assume debts due certain citizens of the
United States from
Mexico to the amount of $3,500,000. It also fixed boundaries and otherwise adjusted matters in dispute.
Unfaithful American citizens plotted schemes for the extinction of the
Mexican Republic (see
Knights of the Golden circle). While the plots were fast ripening, the two governments successfully negotiated a treaty by which the boundary-line between the
United States and
Mexico was defined and fixed.
The treaty was ratified early in 1854, and it was agreed that the decisions of the commissioners appointed under it to revise the boundary should be final.
By that treaty the
United States was to be released from all obligations imposed by the treaty of peace with
Mexico in 1848, and, as a consideration for this release, and for the territory ceded by
Mexico, the
United States agreed to pay the latter $10,000,000—$7,000,000 on the ratification of the treaty, and the remainder as soon as the boundary-line should be established.
These conditions were
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complied with, and the peaceful relations between the two countries have never since been broken.
For documents relating to the war, see
Polk, James Knox. See, also, the titles of the military and naval officers above mentioned, and of the scenes of battles.
See
Churubusco, battle of.
