Verbs
Verbs are words that inflect for person, number, tense, mood, and voice.Agreement
A verb and its subject agree in person and number. AG 316- “Unam incolunt Belgae.” Caesar, BG 1.1
- “Tu volebas nec puella nolebat.” Catullus 8.7
- “Nos consules desumus.” Cicero, Catil. 1.3
- “Civitas ob eam rem incitata armis ius suum exsequi conabatur.” Caesar, BG 1.4
- “Iam mens praetrepidans avet vagari.” Catullus 46.7
- “Dicta est a me causa, iudices, et perorata.” Cicero, Cael. 70
- “Perfacile est imperio potiri.” Caesar, BG 1.2
- “Difficile est longum subito deponere amorem.” Catullus 76.13
Tense
The tense of a verb form indicates whether the action it describes takes place in the past, the present, or the future. AG 464Tenses of the present system
The present system includes the present, the imperfect, and the future. Often the tenses of the present system are used for continuing or repeated action, as opposed to action that happens once and is done with. This is, in particular, the main difference between the imperfect and the present perfect. AG 465, 470, 472- “Angustos se fines habere arbitrabantur. His rebus adducti, constituerunt ea quae ad proficiscendum pertinerent comparare.” Caesar, BG 1.2-3 They (always, habitually) thought their territory was constricted. Prompted by these considerations, they (at one time) decided to prepare what they would need for the expedition.
Each of us writing lines would (repeatedly, over the course of the afternoon) play with this meter and that, sharing wine and laughter. I left (once) excited by your charm.“Scribens versiculos uterque nostrum
ludebat numero modo hoc modo illoc,
reddens mutua per iocum atque vinum.
Atque illinc abii tuo lepore
incensus.
”- “Corripuere viam interea, iamque ascendebant collem.” Virgil, Aen. 1.418-419 They (once, at a single point in time) started on their way and were going up the hill (which took a little while).
- “Prima pars fuit illa quae me minus movebat.” Cicero, Cael. 26 The first part (of the speech the prosecutor has just finished making) was what (during that speech) bothered me least.
Tenses of the perfect system
The perfect system includes the present perfect (often just called "perfect"), the past perfect or pluperfect, and the future perfect. These tenses generally indicate completed action. It is convenient to think of these tenses as the present, past, and future of the perfect system. AG 473, 477, 478- “Necare eandem voluit; quaesivit venenum, sollicitavit servos, potionem paravit, locum constituit, clam attulit.” Cicero, Cael. 31 Here the perfect is used to narrate a series of actions that have happened and are now complete.
- “Ubi ea dies quam constituerat cum legatis venit, ...” Caesar, BG 1.8 When the day came that he had arranged with his lieutenants....
After chance gives the Achaeans the power.... Polyxena's tomb will become wet. The action of the subordinate clause will be complete when the action of the main clause happens, so the subordinate clause uses a tense from the perfect system; as that time is in the future, the appropriate tense is the future perfect.“Nam simul ac fessis dederit fors copiam Achivis
urbis Dardaniae Neptunia solvere vincla,
alta Polyxenia madefient caede sepulcra.
”
Tenses of infinitives and participles
Infinitives and participles also have tenses, though not all possible tenses. These tenses show the relationship of the infinitive or participle to the time of the main verb of the clause. AG 486, 489- “Orgetorix dixit perfacile esse totius Galliae imperio potiri” Caesar, BG 1.2 Orgetorix said it was (or would be) easy to gain power over all Gaul; both present infinitives refer to things that are true at the same time as Orgetorix is speaking, or things that he expects will be true in the future.
- “Quod vides perisse perditum ducas.” Catullus 8.2. The use of the perfect infinitive indicates that the affair is really over: it ended in the past.
- “Quid dolens regina deum virum tot adire labores impulerit?” Virgil, Aen. 1.9-11 Juno was in pain at the same time as she forced Aeneas to go through his travails, hence “dolens” is a present participle.
- “Videor mihi iecisse fundamenta defensionis meae.” Cicero, Cael. 5 Cicero informs the jury that the basis of the defense is complete, hence the perfect infinitive.
Tenses of the subjunctive; sequence of tenses
The tense of a verb in the subjunctive in a subordinate clause depends on its relationship to the time of the main clause. When the main verb refers to the present or the future (a "primary" tense), the subjunctive is a present tense. When the main verb refers to the past (a "secondary" tense), the subjunctive is in a past tehse. If the action described by the subjunctive verb comes before the action of the main verb (that is, it is completed action at the time of the main verb), the subjunctive comes from the perfect system. If the subjunctive desribes an action at the same time as that of the main verb, or an action that comes after that of the main verb (that is, action that is not completed), the subjunctive comes from the present system. So:Main verb primary | Main verb secondary | |
Subjunctive happens before (complete) | Perfect subjunctive | Pluperfect subjunctive |
Subjunctive happens after (incomplete) | Present subjunctive | Imperfect subjunctive |
- “His rebus fiebat ut minus facile finitimis bellum inferre possent.” Caesar, BG 1.2. The Gauls' difficulty in making war is contemporary with the reasons the main clause refers to; contemporary action in secondary sequence calls for the imperfect subjunctive.
The sufficiency of kisses would come after the question; subsequent action in primary sequence calls for the present subjunctive.“Quaeris quot mihi basiationes
tuae, Lesbia, sint satis superque.
”- “Multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem.” Virgil, Aen. 1.5 The main verbs in this sentence (which extents over the first seven lines of the Aeneid) are all in the past, including “passus [est]” here. The founding of the city is subsequent to Aeneas's sufferings. Subsequent action in secondary sequence calls for the imperfect subjunctive.
- “Accusatio crimen desiderat rem ut definiat, hominem notet, argumento probet, teste confirmet.” Cicero, Cael. 6 This general description of the legal system is in the present tense. The purpose clauses describe actions subsequent to the main verb, as purpose clauses often do. Subsequent action in primary sequence calls for the present subjunctive.
Mood
Latin has three finite moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative. The verbal nouns and adjectives are non-finite moods: the infinitives, participles, gerund, gerundive, and supine. AG 154-155Indicative
The indicative is the usual mood of ordinary statement. Most independent clauses are in the indicative. AG 437 Clauses with “cum” take the indicative when the “cum-”clause says when the main clause happens or happened. AG 545- “Helvetii fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt.” Caesar, BG 1.1
“Tu solebas
meas esse aliquid putare nugas
iam tum cum ausus es unus Italorum
omne aevum tribus explicare chartis.
”- “Mimi ergo iam exitus, non fabulae, in quo cum clausula non invenitur, fugit aliquis e manibus, dein scabilla concrepant, aulaeum tollitur” Cicero, Cael. 65
- “Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in eam partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii.” Caesar, BG 1.13.
“Cenabis bene, mi Fabulle, apud me
paucis, si di te favent diebus,
si tecum attuleris bonam atque magnam
cenam.
”- “Non iubeo, sed, si me consulis, suadeo.” Cicero, Catil. 1.13
“Equidem per litora certos
dimittam et Libyae lustrare extrema iubebo,
si quibus eiectus silvis aut urbibus errat.
”
- “Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae.” Caesar, BG 1.1
- “Passer mortuus est, quem plus illa oculis suis amabat.” Catullus 3.3-5
- “Helvetii reliquos gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt.” Caesar, BG 1.1
- “Nam quod scriptorum non magna est copia apud me, hoc fit quod Romae vivimus.” Catullus 68.34-35
Subjunctive
The subjunctive is the mood of subordination. AG 438 See also sequence of tenses, above. Clauses with “cum” take the subjunctive when the “cum-”clause tells something about the circumstances around the main action. AG 546- “Cum civitas ob eam rem incitata armis ius suum exsequi conaretur, Orgetorix mortuus est, neque abest suspicio quin ipse sibi mortem consciverit.” Caesar, BG 1.4. Here Caesar's use of the subjunctive means that Orgetorix died not just while the Helvetians were preparing to fight him, but because they'd turned against him — as the next clause makes clear.
- “Quid facient crines, cum ferro talia cedant?” Catullus 66.47
- “At studuit Catilinae, cum iam aliquot annos esset in foro, Caelius.” Cicero, Cael. 12 If Cicero had said “fuit”, he would simply have been indicating the time when Caelius took up with Catiline. “Esset” means that Caelius's several years of experience in the Forum are relevant: Caelius had already begun to establish himself as a competent, steady young man.
- “Haedui, cum se suaque ab eis defendere non possent, legatos ad Caesarem mittunt.” Caesar, BG 1.11. Because the Haedui could not defend themselves...
- “Quod cum ita sit, nolim statuas nos mente maligna id facere.” Catullus 68.37
- “His Caesar ita respondit: eo sibi minus dubitationis dari quod eas res, quas legati Helvetii commemorassent, memoria teneret.” Caesar, BG 1.14.
- “Cum a me quoque id responsum tulisses, me nullo modo posse isdem parietibus tuto esse tecum, quia magno in periculo essem quod isdem moenibus contineremur, ad Q. Metellum praetorem venisti.” Cicero, Catil. 1.19 Both of the "because" clauses are part of the response Catiline got from Cicero.
- “Eodem die qualis esset natura montis exploratores qui cognoscerent misit.” Caesar, BG 1.21
- “Quare id faciam fortasse requiris.” Catullus 85.1
“Quaeris quot mihi basiationes
tuae, Lesbia, sint satis superque.
”
- “Nostri, si ab illis initium transeundi fieret, parati in armis erant.” Caesar, BG 2.9 Our troops were ready in case theirs might begin to cross. The protasis is a hypothesis and the apodosis a fact; the protasis uses the imperfect subjunctive for subsequent action in secondary sequence.
- “Si nostri oblita taceret, sana esset.” Catullus 83.3-4 If Lesbia will forget about us and be quiet (which is not what she is doing), she will be OK (but instead she's going to fall in love). The protasis and apodosis are both contrary to fact; the imperfect subjunctive is used for continuing action, because the entire poem is cast in the present tense (cf. “dicit”, line 1).
- “Frumentum omne comburunt, ut paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda essent.” Caesar, BG 1.5.
- “Advenio ut te postremo donarem munere mortis.” Catullus 101.3
- “Maia genitum demittit ut terrae pateant hospitio Teucris.” Virgil, Aen. 1.297-299
- “His rebus fiebat ut minus facile finitimis bellum inferre possent.” Caesar, BG 1.2.
“Atque illinc abii tuo lepore
incensus, Licini, facetiisque,
ut nec me miserum cibus iuvaret
nec somnus tegeret quiete ocellos.
”
- “Erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus domo exire possent.” Caesar, BG 1.6 These are the sort of paths along which they could leave, paths suitable for leaving.
- “Quam diu quisquam erit qui te defendere audeat, vives.” Cicero, Catil. 1.6 Roughly, "So long as there is anyone to defend you, you will live." If Cicero had said “audebit”, that is all he would have meant; with the subjunctive, he means "anyone of the type of person who would stick up for you" — not a type of person for whom Cicero has much regard.
- “Eodem die qualis esset natura montis exploratores qui cognoscerent misit.” Caesar, BG 1.21
“Tam te basia multa basiare
vesano satis et super Catullo est,
quae nec pernumerare curiosi
possint nec mala fascinare lingua.
”
- “Miser Catulle, desinas ineptire.” Catullus 8.1
- “Qua re secedant improbi, secernant se a bonis, unum in locum congregentur, muro denique, quod saepe iam dixi, secernantur a nobis.” Cicero, Catil. 1.32
Imperative
The imperative is the mood of command. AG 448- “"Desilite," inquit, "milites, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prodere."” Caesar, BG 4.25
- “Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque.” Catullus 3.1
- “Pauca nuntiate meae puellae non bona dicta.” Catullus 11.15-16
- “Musa, mihi causas memora.” Virgil, Aen. 1.8
- “Quod cum huius vobis adulescentiam proposueritis, constituitote ante oculos etiam huius miseri senectutem qui hoc unico filio nititur, in huius spe requiescit, huius unius casum pertimescit.” Cicero, Cael. 79
Voice
Voice indicates whether the grammatical subject is the agent. AG 156Active
In the active voice, the grammatical subject does the action of the verb.- “Belgae cum Germanis continenter bellum gerunt.” Caesar, BG 1.1
- “Iam ver egelidos refert tepores.” Catullus 46.1
- “Senatus haec intellegit.” Cicero, Catil. 1.1
- “Habet a M. Caelio res publica duas accusationes.” Cicero, Cael. 78
- “Hic portus alii effodiunt.” Virgil, Aen. 1.427
Passive
In the passive voice, the grammatical subject receives or suffers the action of the verb.- “Ad eas res conficiendas Orgetorix deligitur.” Caesar, BG 1.3. Orgetorix is chosen; Caesar does not specify by whom.
“Nulla potest mulier tantum se dicere amatam
vere, quantum a me Lesbia amata mea es.
”- “Ille et terris et alto iactatus est vi superorum.” Virgil, Aen. 1.3
- “Orgetorix a senatu populi Romani amicus appellatus erat.” Caesar, BG 1.3 The same thing could have been said in the active voice: “Senatus Orgetorigem amicum populi Romani appellavit.”
- “Quid datur a divis felici optatius hora?” Catullus 62.30
- “Haec a te dictaque factaque sunt.” Catullus 76.8
- “Non enim ab isdem accusatur M. Caelius a quibus oppugnatur.” Cicero, Cael. 20
Infinitives
The infinitive is most often used for indirect statement. AG 580- “Diviciacus Haeduus respondit hoc esse miseriorem et graviorem fortunam Sequanorum quam reliquorum” Caesar, BG 32
- “Phasellus ait fuisse navium celerrimus.” Catullus 4.2
- “Iuno fertur Karthaginum terris magis omnibus coluisse.” Virgil, Aen. 1.15
- “Datum esse aiunt huic P. Licinio …; constitutum esse cum servis ut venirent ad balneas Senias.” Cicero, Cael. 61
- “Helvetii minus facile finitimis bellum inferre possunt.” Caesar, BG 1.2
- “Volo te ac tuos amores ad caelum lepido vocare versu.” Catullus 6.16-17
- “Perfacile est totius Galliae imperio potiri.” Caesar, BG 1.2
- “Ad mortem te duci iam pridem oportebat.” Cicero, Catil. 1.2 Note how this infinitve has its own subject, “te”.
Participles
Participles are verbal adjectives. AG 488- “Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres.” Caesar, BG 1.1. “Divisa” is the perfect passive participle of “divido” and agrees with the noun it modifies.
- “Cui dono libellum pumice expolitum?” Catullus 1.1-2 “Expolitum” is the perfect passive participle of “expolio”, modifying “libellum”.
- “Ille mi par esse deo videtur, qui sedens adversus te spectat.” Catullus 51.1-4 “Sedens” is the present active participle of “sedeo” and modifies “qui”.
- “Quaero enim cur Licinium titubantem, haesitantem, cedentem, fugere conantem mulieraria manus ista de manibus emiserit.” Cicero, Cael. 66 All these present participles modify “Licinium”, the direct object of “emiserit”. Note how “conantem” has a complementary infinitive, just as finite forms of “conor” would.
- “Ea res est Helvetiis per indicium enuntiata.” Caesar, BG 1.4
“Nulla potest mulier tantum se dicere amatam
vere, quantum a me Lesbia amata mea es.
”