Babylonia
（
Βαβυλωνία; in the Assyrian inscriptions called
Babilu; in the Persian,
Babirush). A plain watered by the lower
streams of the Tigris and Euphrates, and forming the modern province of Irak-Arabi. The
boundaries of Babylonia varied considerably during the different periods of Babylonian and
Assyrian power; but in general the northern boundary consisted partly of the Euphrates and its
affluents, and partly of the frontier forts established by the monarchs of Assyria and
Babylonia, these forts and their outposts forming in all probability the “Median
Wall” of the classical writers. The Tigris River formed a natural eastern
boundary-line, though the province of Namri (Kurdistan) lying east of that stream was
sometimes included in the Chaldaean Empire. The Euphrates with the desert lying east of it was
the western limit, while the territory terminated at the Persian Gulf on the south, this body
of water in early times having extended further inland than at present. The country so bounded
is spoken of in the Old Testament as Shinar, Babel, and “the land of the
Chaldees,” and has always been one of the richest and most fertile districts of
Western Asia, so that Herodotus (i. 193) speaks of it as supplying one
third of the grain produced by the whole Persian Empire—a fact to which the
inscriptions bear witness. A magnificent system of artificial irrigation enhanced this natural
productiveness, a network of canals having extended over the entire territory, some of them
being still navigable, and the greatest of them—the Nar Malka, which connected the
Tigris with the Euphrates —having been used as late as A.D. 700.
Babylonia was divided into several provinces of varying number and extent at different
periods. The chief division was into the two large provinces of Sumir (Shinar) or South
Babylonia, and Akkad or North Babylonia, which latter extended from the city of Babylon to the
Assyrian frontier. Babylon was the capital of Sumir, and the double city Sippara-Akkad (Agade)
on both banks of the Euphrates was the capital of North Babylonia. Minor divisions were
Gan-Duniyas, Edina (Eden), Gambulu (Afadj) and Mat Kaldu, the land of the Chaldaeans on the
Persian Gulf.
Ethnology and Civilization.—Babylonia was a land of
mixed races, as is testified both by the sacred and profane writers of antiquity, and by the
heterogeneous character of its linguistic and monumental remains. The first population was
Ugro-Finnic in its racial affiliations, as is seen by the statues of this period, which
exhibit features of a pure Tartar type, with doliocephalic skulls, high cheek-bones, and
slanting eyes. This type is ethnically altered to the Proto-Medes and to the Elamites of
Susiana. The name of Sumero-Akkadians has been applied to this people, who originally came
from the mountains to the northeast, whence the name
Akkadai,
“mountaineers.” At the time of their immigration into Babylonia they are
believed to have brought with them the elements of civilization. Not long after them, the
Semites entered Babylonia, their type also appearing in the glyptic remains; and later, other
ethnic elements were added to the population by the natural operations of war and commerce.
That the Semitic immigrants ultimately attained to a high degree of influence in the land is
seen in the fact that as early as B.C. 3800 we find a Semitic line of kings, under Sargon of
Akkad, ruling in North Babylonia.
The Babylonian people were possessed of a civilization whose greatness has only of late been
properly appreciated; for the meagre notices in Herodotus and other ancient writers give
little more than a faint suggestion of the truth. The recovery and decipherment in recent
times of many thousands of inscribed tablets from the libraries of the oldest cities of
Babylonia, give us a means of reconstructing a very accurate picture of the sociology of their
ancient life, and one more clear in its details than that given us by the records of almost
any other ancient people, except perhaps of Egypt.
The government was despotic, and of a typically Oriental type. The laws were administered by
supreme judges under whom were ordinary judges, who sat in the gates of the temple and at the
great gate of the city to hear causes, and gave judgment in strict conformity with precedent,
the chief punishments being fines, loss of civic rights, imprisonment, and death. Appeals
could be made to the king. The chief taxes were the “king's tax,” or tax
on all property; the “army tax”; and the tax levied, like the English
“ship-money” of former
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Babylonian Brick, with Cuneiform Inscription.
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times, upon certain districts for ships. Local taxes were temple-tithes (
esritum), the first-fruit tax, the sheep tax, and a tax for the
maintenance of roads and canals. A silver currency was employed (talents, manehs, shekels,
paras), coined money having been introduced in the reign of Darins. These early coins were
perhaps the tetradrachma (q. v.) of the Athenian Greeks.
Women occupied a favourable position, especially after marriage, which was effected by both
a religious and a civil ceremony. Offences against a mother were severely punished, sometimes
even by mutilation. Women could own slaves and other property in their own right, and could
even engage in business. All Chaldaeans of free birth were educated. Slaves were protected by
law against harsh treatment from their masters; they could own property; and in fact were
often taught trades and other self-supporting occupations by their owners.
Art, Literature, and Manufactures.—The
recent explorations of Rassam at Sippara and of De Sarzec at Tel-lô have added
immensely to our knowledge of Chaldaean art, which had hitherto been represented by a few
engraved cylinders and gems. The statues discovered by these gentlemen have much artistic
merit. The largest is nearly life-size, is accurate in its anatomy, and is carved in hard
green diorite. Another even more remarkable piece of workmanship is a head cut in red
porphyry, the execution making it evident that tools of rare excellence must have been used.
Several bronze statuettes attest a knowledge of the art of casting metals. Many talismans and
amulets have been found, the stones selected by the lapidaries being green and red jasper,
haematite, chalcedony, crystal, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, sardonyx, and onyx. Music was
cultivated, as the sculptors prove by their representations of the harp, cymbals, and other
instruments.
Among the Sumero-Akkadian population, the scribe caste contained many members of high rank,
and literature in consequence was highly esteemed. As has been already stated, every free
Babylonian had a certain amount of education, including a knowledge of tablet writing.
Libraries were common, and tablets have been found directing the student how to ask for such
works as he needed from the libraries; whence it appears that a very careful system of
cataloguing prevailed. Various schools of literature are noted as having existed, each influenced by local schools of thought. In the most ancient school of Eridhu, for
example, magic was cultivated, with the result that many works on magic and its cognate
subjects were written and compiled, among them the series of tablets known as the
“books of spells relating to diseases of the head,” and having a
remarkable resemblance to the Atharvaveda or Black-Veda of the Aryans. The school of Erech
produced the epic poem of Gizdhubar, consisting of twelve books arranged according to the
twelve signs of the zodiac. An admirable specimen of Babylonian literature is a tablet, of
which both Assyrian and Babylonian versions exist, describing the war in heaven between
Merodach (Marduk) and the demon Tiamat. This tablet came from the library of the Temple of
Nebo at Borsippa. Besides poetry and magic, the remains of these great libraries have yielded
specimens of historical writing, legal, geographical, and religious composition, and
tréatises on astrology, divination, astronomy, and mythology, besides fables and
proverbs. The greater part of the Chaldaean classics were copied by the Assyrians under
Assur-bani-pal, and thus became a part also of the literature of the Northern Empire. See
Assyria.
The natural products of Babylonia were very numerons, comprising, besides corn and other
cereals, many kinds of fruits, such as grapes and melons, and also
vegetables—sesame, onions, garlic, cucumbers, etc. Trades were varied, and the
tablets make especial mention of weaving, dyeing, pottery, building, and many other mechanical
arts.
Chronology and History.—Hitherto students of Babylonia
have been almost entirely dependent upon the fragmentary portions of the Canon of Kings, drawn
up by the Graeco-Chaldaean priest
Berosus (q.v.),
about B.C. 268; but these lists are now confirmed and superseded by Babylonian Canon
inscriptions dating from the sixth century before our era. The documents are:
1.
a Canon of Kings by their dynasties, extending from B.C. 2200 until B.C. 647, partly
mutilated, but capable of restoration;
2.
the Tablet of Synchronous History of Assyria and Babylonia, which gives the names of the
Babylonian kings from about B.C. 1800 to B.C. 732;
3.
a Chronicle Tablet giving the chief events in Babylonia, the month and day being given in
most cases, from B.C. 747 to B.C. 660; and
4.
a collection of dated contract tablets extending from B.C. 680 to B.C. 150. This unequalled
series of chronological documents gives an almost complete sequence to Babylonian history,
and although there are still
lacunae, the basis is now much more sure
than when we were dependent solely upon the secondhand statements of Ctesias and Berosus.
It is now evident, from the monuments and inscriptions which have been obtained from the
traditionally oldest cities of Chaldaea, that the civilization of the ancient people of
Babylonia has an antiquity surpassing that of ancient Egypt. The earliest monument of which
we can accurately fix the date is a stone whorl in the British Museum, brought from
Sepharvaim by Mr. Rassam. It is an oval-shaped stone, inscribed in what is called
line writing—that is, writing in which the characters are formed
more by lines than by the ordinary wedges, a style that goes back to a time when the
hieroglyphic or pictorial system of writing was beginning to be discontinued. The king's name
inscribed is that of Sargon I., king of Akkad, who is now universally assigned to the
remote antiqurty of B.C. 3800, and other inscriptions of this distant period are to be found
in other European museums. Older still, in all probability, are the very archaic records
found by M. de Sarzec at Tel-lô, in the neighbourhood of Erech, which, written in
the ancient agglutinative dialect of the Sumero-Akkadian inhabitants, must precede the
Semitic inscriptions of the northern kingdom of Sargon and his successors. These early
inscriptions are mostly of a very short character, containing little more than the names and
titles of the kings who ruled the cities, but at the same time they afford us information as
to the state of civilization existing in Chaldaea nearly 4000 years before the Christian era.
The Empire had not become one consolidated whole, and polyarchy was the most prevalent form
of government, each city being ruled by its local king. Thus, Sargon was king of Akkad, and
especially styles himself king of “the city.” Ur-bahu and Dungi were
rulers of Ur, and others held sway in the cities of Eridhu, Larsa, and Babylon. Some of these
early rulers claim the titles of king of Sumir (Shinar) and Akkad, a division which in
after-time had the geographical signification of North and South Babylonia, but which in the
earlier ages are certainly rather to be regarded as ethnic than local divisions of this early
population. Babylon, though always one of the most important cities of the empire, was not
the earliest capital, for the cradle of Chaldaean civilization was in the region of the
south. Here all the ancient legends connected with Gizdhubar as Nimrod are located, and find
their centre in the city of Urn-ki, the Erech of Genesis, the name of which means
“the city of the land,” or capital.
The next most important city in this southern region was Ur, the sacred city of the
Moon-god, the ruins of which are marked by the mound of Mugheir, on the west bank of the
Euphrates, the city from which Abram came. Larsa (Senkereh), the Ellasar of Gen. xiv.; Sergul
or Kulunu, the Calneh of Genesis, now known as the site of Zerghul on the Shat-el-Hie; and
Eridhu, the most sacred city of South Babylonia, called frequently the “Holy
City,” were all seats of local rulers.
The first ruler who succeeded in combining those various city kingdoms into one
consolidated whole was Ur-bahu, whose reign must be placed about B.C. 2700. This ruler
restored temples in nearly all the above-mentioned cities, and appointed “priest
viceroys” to rule in them. He was succeeded by his son Dungi, who has left us a
large number of inscriptions. Already Chaldaean civilization had made great progress and was
far advanced, and the sciences, especially mathematics and astronomy, were studied; while the
ships of Chaldaea navigated the Persian Gulf. The first really historical chronicle belongs
to this period, and is found on a statue of Gudea, which shows the Babylonians already at war
with Elam and the nations to the west. The wars with Elam form the chief features of the
history of this period. In B.C. 2280 a powerful confederation of Elamites under Kudurnakhundi
invaded South Chaldaea, and sacked the capital, Erech, carrying away the statue of the divine
patroness Nana or Istar. This dynasty lasted until about B.C. 2120, and was very powerful, as
shown by the numerous inscriptions of the kings found in various parts of Babylon. Of the
kings of this period two are specially important — viz.,
Kudur-mabug, who appears to have been lord-paramount of the confederation of kings, and who
claimed the title of “lord of the west,” or Syria; and his son, Eri-aku,
who was ruler of Larsa. This latter ruler is almost universally identified by Assyriologists
with the Arioch, king of Ellasar, mentioned in Gen. xiv. This dynasty was overthrown by the
powerful usurper, King Khammuragas, who appears not to have been of native Babylonian origin,
but rather a Kassite or Cosscan who had settled in the land and availed himself of this
period of depression to seize the throne. This Kassite dynasty is one of the most important
periods in Babylonian history, as great political changes took place at this time. It was at
this time that Babylon began to assume its position as the capital of the whole Empire.
Khammuragas rebuilt the temples of Bel at Babylon, Nebo in Borsippa, and restored several of
the sacred edifices in South Babylonia—at Ur, Erech, and Larsa —which had
suffered at the hands of the Elamite invaders. His greatest public work, however, was the
construction of a canal called the river of Khammuragas, “joy of men,”
which there is little doubt was the Nar Malka, or Royal River of the classics. This canal
crossed North Babylonia, passing through Sippara, and is now represented by the Yusifieh
Canal, one of the few ancient canals navigable at the present day. This dynasty lasted about
180 years, the founder himself ruling fortyfive. The very numerous collection of inscriptions
of this period in the British Museum shows that at this time Babylonia was occupied by a much
mixed population, consisting of Sumero - Akkadians, Elamites, Kassites, and a large Semitic
element. The Semites appear principally as traders and merchants.
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Babylonian Seal and its Impression. (British Museum.)
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The three succeeding dynasties, extending over a period of about 600 years, consisted of a
mixture of Semitic and non-Semitic princes, who ruled with Babylon as capital. The history of
this period is chiefly to be derived from the Tablet of Synchronous History, and only a few
Babylonian records of the period have been preserved. One of the most important is the
memorial stone of Nebuchadnezzar I., B.C. 1150—a usurper who seized the throne and
waged war against the rising Empire of Assyria. In this inscription the king records the
result of a campaign against the Elamite chiefs in the region of Namri or Kurdistan, and on
the banks of the Ulai River, on which the city of Shushan was afterwards built. The
description of the campaign undertaken in the hot summer months is extremely graphic for so
ancient a document: “In the month Tammuz he took the road; the rocks were burning
and scorched like fire; from the gardens was burned all vegetation; there was no water in the
springs, and cut off were the drinking-places; the strength of the great horses wearied, and
to the warlike hero his courage returned.” The writer then describes the battle, in
which the Babylonians were undoubtedly worsted, and only saved from complete defeat by the
aid of the governor of an adjacent city who refused to surrender to the Elamites. In return
for this the city has a charter of freedom granted it, declaring it free from taxes and from
the usual levy for men in time of war.
The history is, after this date, chiefly to be derived from Assyrian sources, and it is not
until the time of Nabunazir, the Nabonassar of the Canon of Ptolemy, that we have any
complete sequence of Babylonian history. Our information is now chiefly derived from the
important, but unfortunately fragmentary, Chronicle Tablet already spoken of. Nabonassar,
whose reign forms an important epoch in Babylonian history, ascended the throne in B.C. 747,
and ruled for fourteen years. During his reign the country was twice invaded by the
Assyrians, and, though they claim the victory, they do not seem to have shaken the king on
his throne. Nadinu (the Nadinos of Ptolemy), who succeeded to his father's throne in B.C.
734, only ruled for two years, when one of the popular revolts unseated him and placed
Ukinziru (the Chimzoros of Ptolemy) on the throne. In the third year the country was invaded
by the armies of Tiglath-pileser III., king of Assyria, who drove the Babylonian king from
his capital into the marshes of South Babylonia, where he found him and put him to death,
ascending his throne under the Babylonian name of Pulu or Pul. This conquest of Babylonia, in
B.C. 729, was a very important event in the history of the Kingdom, for it brought the two
courts of the north and south kingdoms once more into close relationship. The death of
Shalmaneser IV., king of Assyria, and the usurpation of the throne by Sargon the Tartan in
B.C. 722, was the opportunity seized by the Babylonians for once more becoming independent,
under the leadership of a prince of very ancient descent— Merodach-baladan II. This
prince was one of the most popular rulers of the middle Babylonian Kingdom, and was supported
by all classes of the people as well as by the Elamite court, who were the most powerful
opponents of Assyria. For twelve years the wars in Syria and other parts of the Empire kept
the Assyrians from despatching sufficiently strong forces to the south to crush this powerful
prince. In B.C. 712, Sargon was purposing to march into Babylonia, when a counteraction was
caused by the Babylonian prince sending an embassy to Hezekiah and the other princes of
Syria, and raising a revolt which called the invaders a way (2 Kings, xx. 6); but in B.C. 710
the storm broke, and Sargon captured Babylon, proclaiming himself king. On
the assassination of Sargon in B.C. 705, Merodach-baladan returned, and after a reign of some
nine months was driven from the land by Sennacherib, seeking refuge in the Elamite provinces
on the east shore of the Persian Gulf. For some years Babylonia was now ruled by viceroys and
princes appointed by the kings of Assyria, although several native princes attempted revolt.
In B.C. 688, Sennacherib, after a very severe campaign, in which he defeated the allied
Elamites and Babylonians, became sovereign of the two kingdoms. His son and successor,
Esarhaddon, attempted to carry out a policy of a more conciliatory kind, and divided his time
between the two courts; but the violent opposition of Egypt in Syria weakened his power, and
the Elamites and Babylonians constantly harassed him. Shortly before his death he appointed
his son Samas-sum-yukin (the Saosduchinos of Ptolemy) ruler, which appointment was confirmed
by his son and successor Assur-bani-pal. This prince, tempted by the intrigue of the
Babylonian priests, revolted against his brother, and was defeated after a terrible war, in
which Babylon, Sippara, and Borsippa were besieged, and burned himself in his palace, B.C.
647. Kandalanu, who succeeded him, was little more than a viceroy, depending in every way
upon the Ninevite court, although tablets are dated in his reign. On the disruption of the
Assyrian Empire after the death of Assur-banipal, the throne of Babylon was seized by
Nabuabla-utzar, or Nabopolassar, the general of the Babylonian garrison, who had married a
Median princess, and was himself, no doubt, of collateral descent from the royal line of
Babylonian kings.
The general disruption of the states of Western Asia which took place in B.C. 625,
subsequent upon the inroad of a large mass of Aryan and other invaders from the east,
afforded the Babylonians an opportunity for throwing off the hated yoke of Assyria, and
Nabopolassar was proclaimed king in B.C. 625. He was succeeded in B.C. 604 by his son
Nebuchadnezzar, one of the greatest sovereigns who ever ruled over the ancient Empire. During
a long reign of forty-three years the prince succeeded in recovering the long-lost provinces
of the kingdom, and once more making Babylon queen of nations. He not only restored the
Empire and rebuilt Babylon, but almost every temple and edifice throughout the land underwent
restoration at his hands. It is an astonishing fact that not a single mound throughout
Babylonia has as yet been opened by the explorers which has not been found to contain bricks,
cylinders, or tablets inscribed with his name. In B.C. 599, he captured Jerusalem, and sent
Jehoiakim captive to Babylon; and eleven years later, owing to the still disturbed state of
the kingdom (B.C. 588), he destroyed the city, and removed most of the inhabitants to
Chaldaea. Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded in B.C. 561 by his son Evil-merodach, who released
Jehoiakim, but was murdered by his brother-in-law NergalSharezer, who was the
rab makhu, or “chief seer,” of one of the temples.
His reign lasted until B.C. 556, his son Labasi-Kudar (the Laborasoarchad of Ptolemy) only
ruling a few months. The throne was in B.C. 556 usurped by a powerful and active prince,
Nabu-naid or Nabonidus, the son of a “chief seer,” whose reign is the
most important, next to that of Nebuchadnezzar, in later Babylonian history. The
inscriptions of this king are found in almost all temples, and some of them contain important
historical facts. In a cylinder found at Sippara the king records his restoration of the
temple at Kharran, which was destroyed by the Scythians, and in his sixth year, B.C. 549, he
records the overthrow of Astyages, king of the Medes, and the capture of Ecbatana by
Cyrus (q.v.). In the king's seventeenth year the whole
land of Babylonia was in revolt against him for neglecting the duties of court and religion,
leaving all to his son Belshazzar. During the summer of this year Cyrus invaded Babylonia,
advancing from the neighbourhood of the modern Bagdad, and reaching Sippara on the fourteenth
day of Tammuz (June), which the garrison yielded without fighting. Two days later, Tammuz 16,
Babylon was taken in the same manner. Cyrus appointed Gobryas ruler. Three months later,
Nabonidus, who was a prisoner, died, and after a week's mourning by the people was buried on
the fourth day of Nisan, B.C. 538. Babylonia now became a Persian province, and under the
rule of Cyrus (B.C. 538-529) and Cambyses (529-521) it appears to have been peaceful. On the
accession to the throne of Darius, son of Hystaspes, the old rebellious spirit once more
asserted itself, and for three years (521-519), the city held out against the Persians under
Nadinta-Bel, who claimed to be Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabonidus. Again, in B.C. 513, the city
revolted under Arakha, an Armenian.
With the overthrow of the Persian monarchy Babylonia came under the short-lived dominion of
Alexander the Great, who died in the capital (B.C. 323). Seleucus I., to whom it had been
promised at the conference of Triparadisus, contested and won the possession of it from
Antigonus (B.C. 312). About B.C. 140, it was taken from the Syrian monarchs by the Parthians.
It came into the hands of the Romans only temporarily, first under Trajan (A.D. 114); under
Septimius Severus (A.D. 199); and, again, under Julian (A.D. 363). When in 650 the successors
of Mohammed put an end to the new Persian monarchy of the Sassanides, the province of
Babylonia, where Bagdad was built (762-766), became the seat of the califs till 1258. Since
1638, when the Turks, for the second time, took it from the Persians, it has been under the
dominion of Turkey, divided into the pachalics of Bagdad and Basra.
Religion.—During its long history many changes took
place in the religion of Babylonia. The primitive Sumero-Akkadians had a sort of
fetich-worship, regarding every object of nature as the abode of a spirit or living principle
(Zî) which governed its relationship to man. The priests of this religion were a
class of exorcists dealing only with the malevolent powers of nature— sickness,
disease, and others hostile to the life of man. From the libraries of Nineveh the liturgies
of these priests have been recovered in the form of magical formulas, incantations, and
hymns, from which it appears that the first gods of the SumeroAkkadian theogony are the
Spirit of Heaven and the Spirit of Earth—the
Dingri, or
Creators—the parents of all the other gods. These other gods are very numerous,
each locality having its own local pantheon, but in subordination to some one divine patron
of the city.
One of the earliest seats of the Babylonian worship was Eridhu on the Persian Gulf, the
seat of the worship of Ea, the “lord of the waves” as
well as “lord of laws,” and identified with the mysterious fish-divinity
of
Berosus (q.v.), who relates that he taught the
early inhabitants of the land the elements of civilization. The wife of Ea was Dav-kina, the
“lady of the earth.” The pair had a son, Tammuz, “the
only-begotten,” whose worship is united to that of his sister, Istar, who is also
his consort. Next in importance came, among the local deities, the god Mul-lil (Belus or Bel
of the Semites), whose sacred city was Nipur (Niffer). He it was who, according to one
version of the story of the Deluge, destroyed mankind. His name means “lord of
ghost-land,” and his wife, Ninkigat or Allat, is the “lady of
ghost-land.” Their child was Namtar, the demon of fever and goddess of fate, who
controls the agencies of disease.
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Coins with Effigies of the Tyrian Baal.
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After the Semitic influence began to prevail, especially in the northern cities, Samas, the
sungod, assumes great importance. Many cities had their own local sun-god or solar hero; and
in Sippara, where stood the Temple of E Bábara (The House of Lustre), this worship
attained its highest development. The great Semitic prince Sargon I. (B.C. 3800) did much to
advance the cult of the sun, which as it spread over Chaldaea brought about a gradual change
in the religion of the country, resulting in an amalgamation of the Semitic and Akkadian
systems. Thus grew up the worship of Bel-Merodach (Marduk) who gradually, from being only a
local sun-god, became the great national deity, as Assur was of the Assyrians, so completely
overshadowing all the other divinities that the later faith of Babylonia approaches a pure
monotheism. His temple, which stood on the eastern side of Babylon, was one of the wonders of
the world. (See
Babylon.) Other divinities of the
later religion are Zirpanit, the wife of Merodach; Nebo (see
Assyria) with his spouse Tasmit; Ninep, the god of war; Nergal, the god
of death; and Gibil, the fire-god.
Bibliography.—See
Layard, Nineveh and
Babylon (1867); Lenormant,
Manuel d'Histoire Ancienne de
l'Orient (9th ed. 1882); id.
La Langue Primitive de la
Chaldée (1875);
Oppert, Histoire des Empires de
Chaldée et d'Assyrie (1865); Perrot and Chipiez,
History of Art in Chaldaea and Assyria (Eng. trans. 1884);
Rawlinson,
Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia (Brit. Mus. 1861-84);
Sayce, Ancient Empires of the
East (1884); id.
Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments
(1885); Delitszch,
Wo lag das Paradies?
(1881). The reader is also referred to the
Babylonian and Oriental
Record, begun in 1886; and, for a summary of very recent discoveries, to a paper by
Prof. Sayce in the
Contemporary Review for January, 1897.
