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144 BC (search for this): chapter 2
es are lost, but more than a hundred and fifty of them were known to Cicero, who praises them as acutae, elegantes, facetae, breves. It was in Cato's lifetime that the introduction of Greek art and letters into Rome took place; and oratory, like all other forms of literature, felt the new influence at once. The oration, though still valued most for its effectiveness, soon came to be looked on as an artistic work as well. The beginning of this tendency is seen in Ser. Sulpicius Galba (cons. B.C. 144) and M. Lepidus (consul B.C. 137). Galba, in the words of Cicero, "was the first of the Latins to employ the peculiar arts of the orator,—digressions to introduce ornament, the art of captivating the minds of his hearers, of moving them with passion, of exaggerating a case, of appealing to pity, and the art of introducing coinmonplaces. That is, digressions on general subjects which would fit any particular oration when a point of the kind arose. It was in Lepidus, however, that the full e
137 BC (search for this): chapter 2
red and fifty of them were known to Cicero, who praises them as acutae, elegantes, facetae, breves. It was in Cato's lifetime that the introduction of Greek art and letters into Rome took place; and oratory, like all other forms of literature, felt the new influence at once. The oration, though still valued most for its effectiveness, soon came to be looked on as an artistic work as well. The beginning of this tendency is seen in Ser. Sulpicius Galba (cons. B.C. 144) and M. Lepidus (consul B.C. 137). Galba, in the words of Cicero, "was the first of the Latins to employ the peculiar arts of the orator,—digressions to introduce ornament, the art of captivating the minds of his hearers, of moving them with passion, of exaggerating a case, of appealing to pity, and the art of introducing coinmonplaces. That is, digressions on general subjects which would fit any particular oration when a point of the kind arose. It was in Lepidus, however, that the full effect of Greek art first manifest
82 BC (search for this): chapter 2
ther than to influence his mind or feelings by the effective presentation of ideas. Hortensius, the great contemporary and rival of Cicero, was a special example of the Asiatic school. He was a somewhat effeminate person, with a dandified air both in composition and delivery. "His voice," we read, "was resonant and sweet, his motions and gestures had even more art than is suitable for an orator." Brutus, xcv, 326. The extreme Attic school was represented by C. Licinius Calvus. Born May 28, B.C. 82; died before B.C. 47. "Though he handled his style with knowledge and good taste," writes Cicero, "yet being too critical of himself" and fearing to acquire unhealthy force, he lost even real vitality. Accordingly, his speaking, repressed by too great scrupulousness, was brilliant to the learned and those who listened to him attentively, but by the crowd and the Forum it was swallowed like a pill." Brutus, lxxxii, 284. It is important to settle Cicero's own position in this contest. He hims
149 BC (search for this): chapter 2
reasons, the art of oratory was perhaps more highly esteemed and of greater practical value in the later period of the Roman Republic than at any other time in the history of the world. But even from the very establishment of the commonwealth, oratory was highly prized, and Cicero gives a long roll of distinguished orators from the First Secession of the Plebs (B.C. 494) to his own time. The most eminent of those whose art was still uninfluenced by Greek rhetoric, was Cato the Censor (died B.C. 149), who may be called the last of the natural Roman orators. His speeches are lost, but more than a hundred and fifty of them were known to Cicero, who praises them as acutae, elegantes, facetae, breves. It was in Cato's lifetime that the introduction of Greek art and letters into Rome took place; and oratory, like all other forms of literature, felt the new influence at once. The oration, though still valued most for its effectiveness, soon came to be looked on as an artistic work as well.
47 BC (search for this): chapter 2
e his mind or feelings by the effective presentation of ideas. Hortensius, the great contemporary and rival of Cicero, was a special example of the Asiatic school. He was a somewhat effeminate person, with a dandified air both in composition and delivery. "His voice," we read, "was resonant and sweet, his motions and gestures had even more art than is suitable for an orator." Brutus, xcv, 326. The extreme Attic school was represented by C. Licinius Calvus. Born May 28, B.C. 82; died before B.C. 47. "Though he handled his style with knowledge and good taste," writes Cicero, "yet being too critical of himself" and fearing to acquire unhealthy force, he lost even real vitality. Accordingly, his speaking, repressed by too great scrupulousness, was brilliant to the learned and those who listened to him attentively, but by the crowd and the Forum it was swallowed like a pill." Brutus, lxxxii, 284. It is important to settle Cicero's own position in this contest. He himself fancied that he f
436 BC - 338 BC (search for this): chapter 2
ther with not so many sententious ideas, but voluble and hurried in its flow of language, and marked by an ornamented and elegant diction." From these hints, as well as from the practice of imperial times (in which this style had full sway), we may gather that the "Asiatic" orators sought the applause of the audience and a reputation for smartness, and were overstrained and artificial. This Asiatic oratory was the decayed development of the highly ornamented style cultivated by Isocrates (B.C. 436-338). About Cicero's time a reaction had set in, and a school had arisen which called itself Attic, and attempted to return to the simplicity of Xenophon and Lysias. But in avoiding the Eastern exaggeration, it had fallen into a meagreness and baldness very different from the direct force of Demosthenes. Probably this tendency was really no more sincere than the other, for both styles alike aimed to excite the admiration of the hearer rather than to influence his mind or feelings by the effe
366 BC (search for this): chapter 6
provinces. See p. lxi. The civil powers of the consuls were analogous to those of any chief magistrate. Most important among them were the right to call together, consult, and preside over the Senate, and the right to convene the comitia centuriata and preside over the election of the higher curule magistrates. For the consular auspicia, see p. lxiii, below. Praetors. Praetor was the original Italic title of the consuls, but, as the result of the agitation for the Licinian Laws, in B.C. 366, a special magistrate of that name was elected "who administered justice, a colleague of the consuls and elected under the same auspices." He was, however, inferior in rank to the consul, who had major potestas. Gradually other praetors were added, until in the time of Cicero there were eight. They were essentially judicial officers, and their functions were assigned by lot. See p. lxv. As curule magistrates, however, they could on occasion command armies or assist the consuls in emergenc
90 BC (search for this): chapter 6
n as the type. The most favored class of municipia retained all powers of self-government, with magistrates of their own election, at the same time being full citizens of Rome. If, as happened in many cases, colonists were sent from Rome (or Latium) to occupy the conquered territory, these retained their full Roman citizenship though living at a distance from the city. Thus a class of towns called colaniae, possessing special privileges, grew up. After the Social War, which resulted (B.C. 90) in giving full Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of all the Italian towns not already enjoying it, there were practically but three classes of such towns: coloniae, municipia and praefecturae. There was no longer any real distinction between the colaniae and the municipia, though the former were looked upon with more respect. The praefecturae, however, had not full rights of self-government, for the administration of justice was in the bands of prefects (praefecti) sent from the capit
123 BC (search for this): chapter 6
with horses of their own. This body consisted mainly of young men of wealth who did not belong to noble (that is, senatorial) families. No very distinct line was, however, drawn between the two classes until the Lex Judiciaria of C. Gracchus (B.C. 123), which prescribed that the judices should not, as heretofore, be taken from the Senators (see p. lxv), but from those who possessed the equestrian census, and at the same time were not members of the Senate. This law did not formally exclude n number was specially fixed by the Lex Acilia at four hundred and fifty, from whom fifty were chosen as jurors. and a right of challenging existed as with us. This body was originally made up from the Senatorial Order, but a law of C. Gracchus (B.C. 123) provided that the judices should be taken from non-Senators who possessed the equestrian census (see p. lxii, above). From this time the Senators and the Equites contended for the control of the courts. Sulla restored to the Senators the exclus
202 BC (search for this): chapter 6
then he created a successor, who might hold the comitia for the election of consuls, but who usually created another successor for that purpose. Dictator. The dictator was an extraordinary magistrate, possessing absolute power, appointed by the consuls, at the instance of the Senate, in times of great public danger. Properly he held office for but six months. The laws of appeal, and other safeguards of individual liberty, had at first no force against this magistrate. In later times (after B.C. 202) dictators were no longer appointed, but instead the Senate, when occasion arose, invested the consuls with dictatorial power. See p. lviii. Sulla, and afterwards Caesar, revived the name and authority of the dictatorship but in their case the office became equivalent to absolute sovereignty, since each of them was appointed dictator for life (perpetuo). The Magister Equitum, appointed by the Dictator, stood next in command to him and also had the imperium. The Courts. Our division of le
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