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Copula


εἶναι and γίγνομαι

60. When the predicate is not in the form of a verb, but in the form of an adjective or substantive or equivalent, the socalled copula is generally employed to couple the adjective or substantive with the subject. The most common forms of the copula are the verbs “εἰμί”, I am, and “γίγνομαι”, I become, turn out, prove, behave.

εἰμί”:

θάνατος ζημία ἐστί,LYS.13.69 ; The penalty is death.οὗτοι ἀνδρεῖοί εἰσιν”, PLATO, Lach. 195C; These are brave. So everywhere.

γίγνομαι”:

τό τ᾽ ἀσέβημα ἡμέτερον γίγνεται,ANT. 2 a 3 ; The impiety becomes ours.

LYS.1.7:πάντων τῶν κακῶν ἀποθανοῦσα αἰτία μοι γεγένηται” .

ANT. 1.4:οὗτοι τοῦ μὲν τεθνεῶτος φονῆς γεγένηνται, ἐμοὶ δ᾽ ἀντίδικοι καθεστᾶσι” . 2 “α” 3 (see above).

PLATO, Lys. 223B:καταγέλαστοι γεγόναμεν ἐγώ τε . . . καὶ ὑμεῖς.

XEN. Ag. 10.4:βασιλεὺς ἐγένετο” (sc. “Ἀγησίλαος”). (See 64.)

THUC.3.2.3:Τενέδιοι . . . μηνυταὶ γίγνονται” , The Tenedians turn informers.

HDT.8.86:ἦσάν γε καὶ ἐγένοντο ταύτην τὴν ἡμέρην μακρῷ ἀμείνονες αὐτοὶ ἑωυτῶν” , They were really and showed themselves that day to be far better than their wont.

AR. Vesp.207:στροῦθος ἁνὴρ γίγνεται” , The man turns to a sparrow.

SOPH. O. C. 272:οὐδ᾽ ἂν ὧδ᾽ ἐγιγνόμην κακός” . 615:τὰ τερπνὰ πικρὰ γίγνεται καὖθις φίλα” .

PIND. P. 10.22:εὐδαίμων . . . οὗτος ἀνὴρ γίνεται ῾αππροϝες ηιμσελφ̓ σοφοῖς.

MIMN. fr. 5.4-5: ἀλλ᾽ ὀλιγοχρόνιον γίγνεται ὥσπερ ὄναρ
ἥβη τιμήεσσα
”.

HOM. Od. 4.361-2:οἵ ῾σξ. “οὖροι πνείοντες”) ῥά τε νηῶν πομπῆες γίγνονται” . 708-9:αἵ θ᾽ ἁλὸς ἵπποι ἀνδράσι γίγνονται.

61. Periphrases with gi/gnomai.

Periphrases with “γίγνομαι” are especially common in elevated style. In addition to the pomp (“ὄγκος”) gained by the fuller expression, the moral character of the agent or action is brought more distinctly to the consciousness. “σωτὴρ γενοῦ μοι,AESCH. Cho. 2 , is much more than “σῶσόν με”, “ῥυσίπολις γενοῦ,Sept. 130 , than “ῥῦσαι τὴν πόλιν”, and “μὴ . . . ὑβριστὴς γένῃ,SOPH. Ai. 1091-2 , than “μὴ ὑβρίσῃς”. See further the comm. on ANT. 1.2:τιμωροὺς γενέσθαι” , and THUC. 3.2.3, and compare Periphrastic Tenses, especially 293.

62. Copula as the predicate.

Strictly speaking, the copula is itself a predicate, as is not unfrequently shown by the translation when it stands alone or with an adverb.

εἰ ταῦθ᾽ οὕτως ἐστίν”, Dem. [58]Dem., 16; If matters stand thus. δ᾽ ἑτέρα ἔστιν ἔτι”, AND.1.120; The other (daughter) is still living.

DEM.20.64:τούτων δ᾽ ἴσως ἔνιοι τῶν ἀνδρῶν οὐκέτ᾽ εἰσίν. ἀλλὰ τὰ ἔργα τὰ πραχθέντ᾽ ἔστιν, ἐπειδήπερ ἅπαξ ἐπράχθη”. [58]DEM., 16(see above).

LYS.1.4. Ibid. 11: γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἔνδον ἦν” . 13.44:ἀνάγκη δ᾽ ἐστίν” . Ibid. 83:περὶ ὧν ἐστιν αἰτία” . 19.11: ῾σξ. “σπάνις ἀργυρίου”) νῦν ἐστιν ῾πρεϝαιλς᾿ ἐν τῇ πόλει” .

AND.1.120(see above).

PLATO, Charm. 153B:μάχη ἐγεγόνειν” (had taken place) “ἐν τῇ Ποτειδαίᾳ”. Protag. 325 B: “σκέψαι ὡς θαυμασίως γίγνονται” (act, behave) “οἱ ἀγαθοί” (see the commentators, and comp. THUC.3.10.1, below). Ibid. 335 D: “ἐὰν γὰρ σὺ ἐξέλθῃς, οὐχ ὁμοίως ἡμῖν ἔσονται οἱ διάλογοι”, If YOU go out, our discussions will not go on as well.

XEN. An. 7.1.28:ἔστι τις οὕτως ἄφρων ὅστις οἴεται;Breathes1 there the man who is so foolish as to think?

THUC.3.10.1:εἰ μὴ μετ᾽ ἀρετῆς δοκούσης ἐς ἀλλήλους γίγνοιντο” . 4.110.2:οὔσης τῆς πόλεως πρὸς λόφον” , The city lying uphill. 4.118.10:αἱ δὲ σπονδαὶ ἐνιαυτὸν ἔσονται” (are to last).

AR. Eq. 1027:ἐμοὶ γάρ ἐστ᾽ ὀρθῶς περὶ τούτου τοῦ κυνός” .

EUR. Alc. 1076: “οὐκ ἔστι τοὺς θανόντας εἰς φάος μολεῖν”.

οἴνου δὲ μηκέτ᾽ ὄντος οὐκ ἔστιν Κύπρις
οὐδ᾽ ἄλλο τερπνὸν οὐδὲν ἀνθρώποις ἔτι

. fr. 236 N2:σὺν μυρίοισι τὰ καλὰ γίγνεται πόνοις”.

SOPH. Ph. 1241:ἔστιν τις, ἔστιν ὅς σε κωλύσει τὸ δρᾶν”.

SOLON, 13.16 Bgk4: “οὐ γὰρ δὴν θνητοῖς ὕβριος ἔργα πέλει”.

HOM. Od. 19.312: “ὡς ἔσεταί περ”, How things will turn out. 21.212.

HOM. Il. 1.211: “ὡς ἔσεταί περ”. 1.564: “εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω τοῦτ᾽ ἐστίν”. 4.319: “ὣς ἔμεν”. 6.130-1:οὐδὲ . . . δὴν ἦν” . 9.528: “ὡς ἦν”, How it was. 9.551: “τόφρα δὲ Κουρήτεσσι κακῶς ἦν”, fared ill. 11.762: “ὣς ἔον”. 23.643: “ὥς ποτ᾽ ἔον”.

63.εἶναι” at the head of a sentence or clause is regularly emphatic, and “ἔστι” is equivalent to the later “ὄντως ἔστι”, is really, is in fact.

DEM.20.18:ἔστι δὲ τοῦθ᾽ οὑτωσὶ μὲν ἀκοῦσαι λόγον τιν̓ ἔχον”.

LYS.1.16:ἔστι δ᾽, ἔφη, Ἐρατοσθένης Οἴηθεν ταῦτα πράττων” .

PLATO, Gorg. 449B:εἰσὶ μέν, Σ., ἔνιαι τῶν ἀποκρίσεων ἀναγκαῖαι διὰ μακρῶν τοὺς λόγους πολεῖσθαι”.

XEN. Cyr. 1.4.3:καὶ ἧν μὲν ἴσως πολυλογώτερος” .

THUC.7.1.4:ὢν οὐκ ἀδύνατος”.

HDT.5.124:ἦν γὰρ . . . Ἀρισταγόρης Μιλήσιος ψυχὴν οὐκ ἄκρος”. 8.86: “ἦσάν γε καὶ ἐγένοντο . . . ἀμείνονες αὐτοὶ ἑωυτῶν” (see 60).

AR. Lys. 1037:ὡς ἐστὲ θωπικαὶ φύσει” .

SOPH. O. C. 1000:εἶ γὰρ οὐ δίκαιος” . O. T. 255: “εἰ γὰρ ἦν τὸ πρᾶγμα μὴ θεήλατον”.

AESCHYL. Ag. 958:ἔστιν θάλασσα, τίς δέ νιν κατασβέσει”;

PIND. O. 1.36: “ἔστι δ᾽ ἀνδρὶ φάμεν ἐοικὸς ἀμφὶ δαιμόνων καλά”.

SAPPHO, fr. 85:ἔστι μοι κάλα πάις”.

HOM. Od. 2.292-3: “ εἰσὶ δὲ νῆες
πολλαὶ ἐν . . . Ἰθάκῃ
”.

Il. 10.378-9: “ ἔστι γὰρ ἔνδον
χαλκός
”.


Other verbs

64. Copulative verbs.

Other Copulative Verbs are:

In the better days of the language such verbs as “καθίστασθαι, τυγχάνειν, ὑπάρχειν”, and “φῦναι” are not mere fluxes for the predicate. The frequent use of “φῦναι” and “τυγχάνειν” arises from the Greek division of all manifestation into the two spheres of “φύσις” and “τύχη”. In “ὑπάρχειν”, which ultimately became colorless, the idea of a basis, of something to fall back upon, of resource or residue, was not wholly effaced in the good period.

DEM.18.46:ἀντὶ γὰρ φίλων καὶ ξένων τότ᾽ ὠνομάζοντο, νῦν κόλακες καὶ θεοῖς ἐχθροὶ καὶ πάνθ̓ προσῆκεν ἀκούουσιν”, hear=are called. 57.47: “εἰ μὲν ἔλαχον ἱερεύς”.

LYS. [6], 4:ἂν νυνὶ Ἀνδοκίδης ἀθῷος ἀπαλλαγῇ . . . καὶ λάχῃ βασιλεύς” .

ANT. 1.4(60): “ἐμοὶ δ᾽ ἀντίδικοι καθεστᾶσι”.

PLATO, Charm. 154B:σχεδὸν γάρ τί μοι πάντες οἱ ἐν τῇ ἡλικίᾳ καλοὶ φαίνονται”. Ibid. 154 C: “καὶ τότε ἐκεῖνος ἐμοὶ θαυμαστὸς ἐφάνη”. Hipp. Mai. 300 A: “οὐδέ γ᾽ αὖ δἰ ἀκοῆς ἡδονή, . . . διὰ ταῦτα τυγχάνει καλή”. Prot. 313 E:τυγχάνεις ἐπιστήμων”. Theaet. 146 A: δὲ ἁμαρτών . . . καθεδεῖται . . . ὄνος”, The fellow that misses will sit down an ass.

XEN. Ages. 10.4:φιλοτιμότατος δὲ πεφυκώς, ἀήττητος διετέλεσεν, ἐπε βασιλεὺς ἐγένετο” , Born ambitious, he continued unconquered after he became king.

THUC.4.69.2:καὶ αἱ οἰκίαι . . . αὐταὶ ὑπῆρχον ἔρυμα”, The houses themselves served as a fortress.

HDT.4.110:δύναται δὲ τὸ οὔνομα τοῦτο κατὰ Ἑλλάδα γλῶσσαν ἀνδροκτόνοι”.

AR. Pax, 1045:τίς ἄρα ποτ᾽ ἐστίν; ὡς ἀλαζὼν φαίνεται” .

EUR. Hec. 1229: “ὑπῆρχ”(“ε”). Ion, 412: “μεταπέσοι” (sc. “τὰ συμβόλαια”) “βελτίονα”. Med. 229: “κάκιστος ἀνδρῶν ἐκβέβηχ᾽ οὑμὸς πόσις”. Ibid. 285: “πέφυκας”. Ibid. 728: “μενεῖς ἄσυλος”. fr. 360.8 N2:ἐφυμεν”. fr. 382 N2:πέφυκα”.

SOPH. El. 45-6: “ γὰρ
μέγιστος αὐτοῖς τυγχάνει δορυξένων
”.

AESCHYL. Pers. 598:κακῶν μὲν ὅστις ἔμπειρος κυρεῖ”.

PIND. O. 1.47: “ὡς δ᾽ ἄφαντος ἔπελες”.

HOM. Od. 7.51-2: “ θαρσαλέος γὰρ ἀνὴρ ἐν πᾶσιν ἀμείνων
ἔργοισιν τελέθει
”.

Il. 1.417-8: “ νῦν δ᾽ ἅμα τ᾽ ὠκύμορος καὶ ὀϊζυρὸς περὶ πάντων
ἔπλεο
”.

65. Passive verbs as copulative verbs.

Passive verbs of making, taking, choosing, calling, and the like are used as copulative verbs, and like the others take the same case in the subject and predicate. Such verbs are:

DEM.2.5:μέγας ηὐξήθη”. 2.8: “ἤρθη μέγας”. 4.18: “ἵν”(“α”) . . . “ἀφύλακτος ληφθῇ”. 9. 21: “μέγας ἐκ μικροῦ . . . Φίλιππος ηὔξηται”. [12]DEM., 14:ἐὰν μὲν ἐμὴ γνωσθῇ” (sc. “ νῆσος”) . . ., “ἐὰν δ᾽ ὑμετέρα κριθῇ”. 18.282: “σὺ τοίνυν οὗτος ηὑρέθης”. 27.63: “εἰ κατελείφθην μὲν ἐνιαύσιος”. Ibid. 64: “οἶκοι ταλαντιαῖοι καὶ διτάλαντοι καταλειφθέντες”.

ISOC.12.5:οὐχ οἷός εἰμι γιγνωσκόμενος ἀλλὰ τοιοῦτος ὑπολαμβανόμενος οἷον κτἑ”.

LYS.13.66:καὶ ἐλήφθη μοιχός” . 16.8:πολλοὺς δ᾽ αὐτῶν στρατηγοὺς καὶ ἱππάρχους κεχειροτονημένους” .

ANT. 6.11:ἐπειδὴ χορηγὸς κατεστάθην”.

PLATO, Legg. 689D: . . . μεγίστη τῶν ξυμφωνιῶν μεγίστη δικαιότατ᾽ ἂν λέγοιτο σοφία”. Phaedr. 236 B:σφυρήλατος ἐν Ὀλυμπίᾳ στάθητι”. Rpb. 566 D:τύραννος ἀντὶ προστάτου ἀποτετελεσμένος”.

XEN. An. 7.1.26:πολέμιοι μὲν ἐσόμεθα ἀποδεδειγμἐνοι Λακεδαιμονίοις” .

THUC.3.82.4:τόλμα μὲν γὰρ ἀλόγιστος ἀνδρία φιλέταιρος ἐνομίσθη”, Daring without reflection was considered bravery of good comradeship. 5.95:τὸ δὲ μῖσος δυνάμεως παράδειγμα τοῖς ἀρχομένοις δηλούμενον” . 6.33.3:ἄφρακτοι ληφθήσεσθε” .

HDT.2.141:καὶ νῦν οὗτος βασιλεὺς ἕστηκε . . . λίθινος”. 3.88: “Δαρεῖος . . . βασιλεὺς ἀπεδέδεκτο”, et sim. alibi.

AR. Nub. 1079:μοιχὸς γὰρ ἢν τύχῃς ἁλούς” . Av. 798-9:Διιτρέφης . . . ᾑρέθη φύλαρχος, εἶθ᾽ ἵππαρχος” .

EUR. H. F. 150: “σὺ δ᾽ ὡς ἀρίστου φωτὸς ἐκλήθης δάμαρ”.

SOPH. El. 950:μόνα λελείμμεθον”. O. T. 576: “οὐ γὰρ δὴ φονεὺς ἁλώσομαι”. Ph. 908: “δεύτερον ληφθῶ κακός”;

AESCHYL. Eum. 353: “παλλεύκων δὲ πέπλων ἄμοιρος μούνα ἐτύχθην”. Pers.135-9: “Περσίδες δ᾽ . . . ἑκάστα . . . λείπεται μονόζυξ”. Sept. 698-9: “κακὸς οὐ κεκλή”- | “σῃ”, Base shalt thou not be called.

PIND. O. 9.46: “Λαοὶ δ᾽ ὀνύμασθεν”. I. 3.25-6: “τιμάεντες . . . λέγονται” | “πρόξενοί τ”(“ε”).

HOM. Od. 9.335:αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ πέμπτος μετὰ τοῖσιν ἐλέγμην” . 20.67-8:αἳ δὲ λἱποντο ὀρφαναὶ ἐν μεγάροισι” .

Il. 1.293: “ γάρ κεν δειλός τε καὶ οὐτιδανὸς καλεοίμην”. 4.84: “Ζεύς, ὅς τ᾽ ἀνθρώπων ταμίης πολέμοιο τέτυκται”.

66. ei)=nai combined with a copulative verb.

Even after these “εἶναι” is sometimes found as to be is in English; e. g. “Paul called to be an apostle.

ISAE. Cf. 2.41: “οὗ εἶναι ὠνομάσθην”.

PLATO. Cf. Apol. 23 A:ὄνομα δὲ τοῦτο λέγεσθαι σοφὸς εἶναι” . Rpb. 428 E:ὅσοι ἐπιστήμας ἔχοντες ὀνομάζονταί τινες εἶναι” .

HDT.5.25ter). 7.154: “ἀπεδέχθη πάσης τῆς ἵππου εἶναι ἵππαρχος”.

PIND. O. 10.63-4: “μάτρωος δ᾽ ἐκάλεσσέ νιν” | “ἰσώνυμον ἔμμεν”.

Cf. Il. 17.150-1: “Σαρπηδόν”(“α”) . . . | “κάλλιπες Ἀργεΐοισιν ἕλωρ καὶ κύρμα γενέσθαι”.

67. Previous condition.

Previous condition is represented by “ἀντί” or “ἐξ” with the gen.

DIN.1.111:εὑρήσετε γὰρ τοῦτον . . . ἀντὶ μὲν λογογράφου . . . πλουσιώτατον ὄντα τῶν ἐν τῇ πόλει, ἀντὶ δ᾽ ἀγνῶτος . . . ἔνδοξον γεγενημένον”.

DEM.9.21:μέγας ἐκ μικροῦ” (see 65). 18.46 (see 64). Ibid. 131: “πλούσιος ἐκ πτωχοῦ . . . γεγονώς”, A rich man (plutocrat) from a pauper.

LYS.32.17:ἀντὶ πλουσίων πτωχούς” .

PLATO, Rpb. 566D (see 65).

XEN. Cyr. 8.3.39:ἐκ πένητος πλούσιος γεγένησαι” .

HDT.1.87:πολέμιον ἀντὶ φίλου ἐμοὶ καταστῆναι”.

Cf. Av. 627 (see 25). Ran. 1011: “ἐκ χρηστῶν καὶ γενναίων μοχθηροτάτους ἀπέδειξας”.

SOPH. Tr. 148-9:ἕως τις ἀντὶ παρθένου γυνὴ κληθῇ” .

PIND. O. 13.66-7: “ἐξ ὀνείρου δ αὐτίκα” | “ἦν ὕπαρ”.

On the Double Acc. after Active Verbs see Index.

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