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[18] Another topic consists in concluding the identity of antecedents from the identity of results.1 Thus Xenophanes said: “There is as much impiety in asserting that the gods are born as in saying that they die; for either way the result is that at some time or other they did not exist.” And, generally speaking, one may always regard as identical the results produced by one or other of any two things: “You are about to decide, not about Isocrates alone, but about education generally, whether it is right to study philosophy.”2 And, “to give earth and water is slavery,” and “to be included in the common peace3 implies obeying orders.” Of two alternatives, you should take that which is useful.

1 Cause and effect.

2 Isoc. 15.173.

3 The peace concluded between the Greeks (although the Lacedaemonians held aloof) and Alexander the Great after the death of Philip of Macedon (336 B.C.).

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