Pa′per.
A material made in thin sheets from a pulp of ground rags or other fiber, and used for writing or printing upon or for wrapping.
The name is derived from
papyrus, an Egyptian reed whose stalk furnished for so many centuries the principal material for writing upon and for wrapping, to the nations bordering upon the Mediterranean.
In his day, Pliny remarked : —
“All the usages of civilized life depend in a remarkable degree upon the employment of paper.
At all events, the remembrance of past events.”
This observation, undoubtedly true 1,800 years ago, is much more remarkably so now; indeed, in considering that paper as we now understand it was
[
1604]
entirely unknown to
Europe in the time of Pliny, the expression of the great dependence upon what seems to us so fragile and inefficient a substitute for real paper appears strange.
The
Greek name
papuros, mentioned by
Theophrastus, a contemporary of Aristotle and
Alexander, was probably the
Egyptian name of the reed with a Greek termination.
It was also called
biblos by
Homer and
Herodotus, whence our term
bible. The term
volumen, a scroll, indicates the early form of a book of bark, papyrus, skin, or parchment, as the term
liber (Latin, a book, or the inner bark of a tree) does the use of the bark itself.
Hence also our words
library, librarian, etc.
Pliny indorses the statement of
Varro that the discovery of the use of the papyrus was an incident in the victorious expedition of
Alexander of
Macedon; this was not correct, but no doubt the expedition contributed to introduce the papyrus to the nations of the
West.
Egyptian tombs show that it was used many ages before the time of
Alexander, and, indeed, long prior to any authentic historical accounts of
Greece; its existence being proven nearly as far back as the stone records of
Egypt extend, or nearly to the time of
Menes himself (2400 B. C.).
It seems to have been early known to the Hebrews.
Isaiah refers to the papyrus plant when he says, —
“The paper reeds by the brooks, and everything sown by the brooks, shall wither, be driven away, and be no more.”
This prediction of the prophet has been long since fulfilled, and the plant is now comparatively rare.
An ancient
Egyptian papyrus on the preparation of medicines, which was found at
Thebes by
Dr. Ebers, has lately been placed in the
Leipsic Library.
It is in a good state of preservation, and consists of one hundred and ten columns; written on the back is a double calendar in eight columns.
Each column is eight inches wide, and contains twenty-two lines.
The writing is from right to left; it is all in black ink, except the beginnings of chapters, which are in red ink. The characters are distinct, bold, and tasteful, and their form appears to fix the seventeenth century B. C. as the date of the manuscript; the fact that in the calendar the name of King Ra-ser-ka (Amenophis I.)
is mentioned, proves that the papyrus is not posterior to the first half of that century.
The work itself dates from a period more remote than its transcription on papyrus.
It is known that the most ancient
Egyptian writings were works about medicine.
Manetho tells us that the Egyptians honored one of their first kings as a physician.
This assertion is confirmed, not only by the fragment of papyrus of Brugsh and Chabas, preserved in the
Berlin Museum, but also by the present document.
The first chapter of the papyrus treats of the original production of the book, which came from the
Temple of On (
Heliopolis). Then follow the remedies employed for the cure of various diseases, together with extensive details as to diseases of the eye, remedies against the falling off of the hair, for sores, fevers, the itch, etc. The chapter devoted to the mistress of the house is succeeded by one about the house itself, which insists on the importance of cleanliness, and tells how to banish insects, to exclude them from houses, to prevent serpents from coming out of their holes, to avoid the stings of gnats and the bites of fleas, and to disinfect clothing and dwellings.
Then there is a treatise on the relations between soul and body, with secret methods of studying the heart and its movement.
The gossiping and agreeable Pliny gives a detailed account of the preparation of paper from the
Nile reed.
This indefatigable man is principally known to us by one only of his voluminous writings, his treatise on “Natural history.”
This, however, treats on a great multitude of subjects, including agriculture and the arts and sciences, and affords a very interesting record of the state of practical knowledge at that time.
He was suffocated by the mephitic vapors at the eruption of
Vesuvius, A. D. 79, which he had imprudently approached too nearly, for the purpose of scientific investigation.
It may be remarked, that this eruption of
Vesuvius, described with so much animation by Pliny the Younger, did not utterly destroy the cities of
Herculaneum and
Pompeii, as is popularly supposed.
We find them emerging from their ruins in the reign of the Emperor Titus, in the fifth year of whose reign they suffered so much.
They yet subsisted in the reign of Hadrian, under the Antonines, and are mentioned as inhabited cities in the chart of Peutinger, which is of the date of
Constantine.
The eruption of A. D. 471 was probably the most frightful on record; and if we may believe
Marcellinus, the ashes of the volcano were vomited over a great portion of
Europe, reaching to
Constantinople, where a festival was instituted in commemoration of the strange phenomenon.
After this, we hear no more of the cities, but the portion of the inhabitants who escaped built or occupied suburbs at
Nola in Campania and at
Naples.
In the latter city, the
Regio Herculanensium, or
Quarter of the Herculaneans, an inscription marked on several lapidary monuments, indicates the part devoted to the population driven from the doomed city.
From Pliny we learn that the papyrus plant grew in the marshes of
Egypt or in the sluggish waters of the river
Nile in pools which did not exceed 3 1/2 feet in depth, forming a gracefully tapering stalk, triangular in cross-section and not over 16 feet (10 cubits) in hight.
The paper made from papyrus was of nine different qualities, varying in size, color, and texture.
It was made “by splitting the successive folds of the stalk with a needle into very thin leaves, due care being taken that they should be as broad as possible.
That of the first quality is taken from the center of the plant, and so on in regular succession, according to the order of division.”
Each quality was known by a different name, as “
Augusta,” “Liviana,” “Hieratica,” etc., the latter from the fact that it was reserved for religious books.
The “tamotic” and “emporatica” were sold by weight, and used by dealers for wrapping, while the bark was used for making cordage.
All these various kinds were made upon a table moistened with Nile water; a liquid which, when in a muddy state, was supposed to have some of the properties of glue.
There is little doubt, however, that this adhesive property was inherent in the plant itself, and in some instances we know that paste was employed.
The table being first inclined, the flakes of papyrus were laid upon it length wise to such length as the papyrus would admit of, the jagged edges being cut off at either end; after which a cross-layer was placed over it. When this was done, the leaves were pressed close together and then dried in the sun, after which they were united to one another, the best sheets being always taken first, and the inferior added afterward.
There were never more than twenty of these sheets to a roll.
The width varied according to quality from thirteen to six fingers' breadth.
In making, the leaves were beaten and thinned out with a mallet, and the leaves united by paste.
Roughness was subsequently smoothed down with a burnishing tooth or shell, which polished the surface.
We may remark that modern microscopical investigation has demonstrated the fact that three instead of two layers of the liber were usually if not universally employed.
As a material for writing upon, the Mexicans used cotton cloth or skins nicely prepared, or a composition of silk and gum, but principally a fabric prepared from the aloe,
Agare americana, called by the natives
maguey, which grows freely over the table-land of
Mexico.
The paper somewhat resembles the
Egyptian papyrus, and is polished to resemble parchment.
It took color and ink excellently, and many specimens remain.
It was sometimes rolled up in scrolls; at other times was made up in packs of leaves, with a tablet of wood for the outsides.
The leaves were separate.
A species of incombustible paper was made from asbestus in the time of Pliny.
To give an idea of the bulky nature of papyrus manuscripts it may be mentioned that
Ovid's Metamorphoses occupied fifteen rolls.
The abundance of papyrus in
Egypt, the chief source of its production, the magnificence of the kings of that country, and the concourse of learned men who resorted thither, caused it to become the seat of those immense libraries which we read of as having perished in the flames during the siege of
Alexandria by
Julius Caesar, B. C. 47, under
Theodosius about A. D. 388, and finally under
Omar the Saracen about A. D. 639.
During this interval, however, the
Alexandrian library had been increased
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1605]
by the addition of that of
Eumenes, king of
Pergamos, which had been presented by Marc Antony to
Cleopatra.
The volumes composing this latter were written largely on parchment, and, according to the old story, this material was invented or discovered by
Eumenes, about 200 B. C., in consequence of a prohibition laid on the exportation of papyrus from
Egypt, due to the fact that one of the Ptolemies wished to have no rivals in the matter of libraries, and proposed by this means to prevent
Eumenes from proceeding with his proposed collection.
The latter, however, it appears, was not to be thus deterred from his favorite project, and contrived a method of preparing skins of animals which fully answered his intended purpose.
As skins for records had been known for so many ages, among the Hebrews for instance, we may fairly presume that the invention of
Eumenes merely related to a peculiar mode of dressing.
It may be conjectured, perhaps, that previous to the time of this king writing upon skins had been done with paint, and not with ink. Paint consists of a pigment ground in oil, and ink is a dye dissolved in water.
The former does not flow freely, and cannot well be used with a pen, but requires an implement of the brush kind for its proper application.
Neither, however, can well be applied to skins which still retain a large portion of their fatty matters; an ink can hardly be used at all for forming legible characters on skins in this condition, though a paint, to a certain extent, may.
Parchment, in addition to having been selected and reduced to a regular thickness, has been specially treated with detergents, and a proper surface raised by pumice-stone, so that it is adapted to receive and retain ink. Papyrus being the ordinary material for writing, and being eminently calculated to receive the aqueous colored solution called ink, it was the object of
Eumenes to render the skins of animals suitable for the reception of such a fluid, and avoid the necessity of going back to the use of paints.
The name of
Crates of Mallos is honorably associated with that of
Eumenes in the enterprise, if not the invention.
All public documents under Charlemagne were written on parchment except by the Popes, who used papyrus till the twelfth century.
Papyrus continued to be used for epistolary correspondence till the introduction of paper by the Saracens.
The bull of
Pope Agapetus, dated 951, was written on papyrus, and perished in the burning by the
French communists of the library of the Louvre, May 24 – 25, 1871.
Many ages must have passed in
Egypt before the ingenious mode of obtaining paper from papyrus was devised.
At this distant period we may assume that Pliny's remarks were true of the
Nile land, as in that writer's own age they were true of
Asia and parts of
Europe.
“At first men wrote upon leaves and afterward upon the bark or rind of trees.”
Reference has already been made to the terms
volumen and
liber, and the origin of another set of words is no less apparent.
The modern word
page is from the
Latin word
paginoe, flat leaves; and the word
leaves is also applied, being the translated form of
paginoe, as
page is the derived word.
Folio is also from
folium (Latin), a leaf, indicating the material so commonly used.
Writing on palm-leaves was practiced among all peoples where that tree flourished; the Singhalese and other East-Indian nations retain it to the present day. Oblong pieces of the green leaf are trimmed uniformly, so as to be strung together to form a book, — a shaky and insecure binding, but one quite common in museums.
The writing is scratched through the external cellular matter of the leaf, which shrinks away from the incision, into which a black pigment is sometimes rubbed.
Many other materials have been used by savage and semi-civilized nations for records more or less enduring.
Under the article pen may be found some references to pictured and inscribed rocks, to writings on tablets, skins, stones, slabs of clay, bones, shells, linen, metallic plates, and ivory.
See pen.
Close at home we have an excellent substitute in an emergency, birch-bark, used by the northern tribes of
Indians.
In Polynesia and Oceanica, as well as in
China and
Japan, the
Morus papyrifera, or papermulberry, yields an inner bark which is of great value.
In
Java and
Sumatra it is the ordinary material for writing upon.
Its use as a garment is perhaps most extensive among the Feejees.
Among these ingenious cannibals the
tappa cloth, as it is termed, is made by removing the bark from the tree in strips six feet long and three inches wide.
These are soaked and then beaten on a table with flat grooved mallets, until the strip is extended into a sheet as wide as it is long.
This is then flattened with a smooth mallet, and pieces may be united by beating their edges together.
In the due course of the ages, papyrus and parchment having rendered an elastic pen (
calamus, a reed) and a fluid ink the most convenient materials for writing, we find they long maintained an almost uninterrupted sway, the variations being in the use of waxed tablets, leaden plates, and waxed linen, as explained under pen.
The great change occurred when
true paper was made of
rags or other vegetable fiber, reduced to a pulp, gathered into a sheet, felted in setting, and dried.
Human invention had, in this case, been anticipated by the wasp, which insect may be considered as a professional papermaker, devoting a large portion of her time and energies to the production of this fabric, of which she builds her nest.
For this purpose she seeks dry wood, — fence-rails and weather-beaten boards are a favorite source of supply, — which she saws or rasps by mastication, mixes with a natural size exuded for the purpose, works into a paste, and spreads into sheets in a manner truly marvelous.
Any one who has pelted hornets' nests with stones from a safe distance, or given them a passing blow with a stick as they hang from a limb in the orchard, will be led to admire the strength which a pulp of chewed wood and albumen may be capable of exhibiting.
The structure is generally a prolonged irregular spheroid, wonderfully light, and is bound by repeated layers and bands of paper to the bough from which it is suspended.
The material resists rain, partly from the shape, the roof being rounded : partly from the fact that the successive layers overlap, or, in other words, that the dome is
shingled : and partly, we presume, from its being rendered semi-waterproof by the size in its composition.
The mode of procedure is interesting.
Having finished the ceiling, the hornet begins to build the first terrace of her city.
The females and neuters do most of the work among all insects of this class.
The charges and distractions of maternity are, however, in most cases removed from the workers whose gender is suppressed, though the mother hornet, unlike the queen bee, is eminently industrious.
To resume : the upper terrace of cells in the interior of the structure is of a general circular shape, and is suspended from the ceiling of the dome by a stalk and stays of the same material which composes the body of the nest.
The cells in the terrace are hexagonal in form, and have their mouths downward.
These are not appropriated to honey, as the insects do not lay up provisions, but they are devoted to the rearing of the young.
A set of cells being completed and eggs laid therein, the work is intermitted, and the mother's time devoted to supplying food for the grubs, which soon require her care.
When, in a few weeks, they are able to go abroad themselves, they help extend the quarters, and a new terrace is constructed, supported by stems from that above.
The community of paper-makers may amount to 30,000 in a single season, according to Reaumur.
The
Chinese, at the time of Kung-fu-tze (about 600 B. C.), wrote with a style upon the liber of trees, as their records state.
Paper was used, perhaps invented, in that country in the reign of Wan-te, 179 —
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1606]
156 B. C. That made previous to the Christian era is supposed to have been of silk.
Engrossing on cloth and silken stuffs had been practiced for many centuries previously.
The
Chinese silk paper is stated by
Martini to have been invented in
China about 120 B. C., and to have found its way into
Persia and
Arabia about A. D. 620.
The bark-paper of
China is made in the following manner : The small branches of a species of tree resembling the mulberry (
Broussonesia) are boiled in lye to loosen the bark; this is then macerated in water for several days, the outer part scraped off, and the inner part boiled and agitated in lye until it separates into fibers.
It is then washed in a pan or sieve and worked by the hands into a pulp, which is afterward spread on a table and beaten fine with a mallet.
The pulp is next placed in a tub containing an infusion of rice and a root called
oreni, and thoroughly stirred to mix the materials.
The sheets are formed by dipping a mold, made of strips of bulrushes confined in a frame, into the vat containing the pulp, and are, after molding, laid one on another with strips of reed between.
A board and weights are laid on the pile to express the water, and they are then separated and dried in the sun. This paper is so delicate as to bear writing on one side only.
When it is desired to write on two sides a couple of sheets are pasted together back to back.
The
Chinese paper of bamboo fiber is likewise very ancient, and is made by pulping and gathering the pulp in films.
The
Chinese rice-paper, so called, is prepared from the inner portion of the stems of a hardy leguminous plant that grows plentifully about the lakes near
Calcutta and also in the island of Formosa, whence the Chinese import it in large quantities.
The stems of the plant being cut into the proper lengths for the sheets, the pith is cut spirally into a thin slice, then flattened, pressed, and dried.
It thus resembles very closely the papyrus in the mode of manufacture.
It is said that in
Japan, previous to the year A. D. 280, silken stuff, with a facing of linen, was used for writing upon.
Subsequently paper was imported from the Corea, and about 610 A. D. the
Broussonesia papyrifera (paper mulberry) was introduced, from which the greater part of the paper now used in that country is made.
This is manufactured by boiling the stalks of the plant, causing the bark to separate.
The outer portion of this is converted into paper of an inferior quality, while the inner skin is treated by farther boiling, washed, and pounded by beating with clubs on a wooden table.
The pulp thus formed is made into balls, from which portions are broken off as required and mixed with a paste made from the root of the
troro, a sort of shrub.
The mixture, thoroughly incorporated and of proper consistency, is poured into a mold consisting of an inner and outer frame, the former having a false bottom.
The sheet thus formed is turned out of the mold and dried on boards.
The whole process and its manipulations bear a striking analogy to those employed in making hand-laid paper in the
European way, as will be subsequently described.
The process differs in some respects from the Chinese plan described above.
The conquests of the
Saracens cut off the supply of papyrus to
Europe, and that energetic people made amends by introducing true paper.
They are supposed, by their conquests in Bucharia about the year 704, to have acquired the art of making cotton paper, and substituted it for the silk of the far
East and the papyrus of the
South.
In the eighth century the Saracens conquered
Spain, and through that peninsula the art of making paper reached the rest of
Europe.
In the same century, the art is said to have been introduced into
Constantinople from the
East.
Paper was made by the Saracens in
Spain from flax, and afterward from cotton.
Some time previous to this, however, a cotton paper, made in
Damascus and designated as
Charta damascena, had been known in
Europe.
An Arabian author of the thirteenth century states that cotton paper was invented at
Mecca by one
Joseph Amru, about the year of the Hegira 88, that is, A. D. 706.
Another Arabian authority states that a paper manufactory was found at
Samarcand, in Bucharia, when the Arabs conquered that country in the year of the Hegira 85.
The oldest manuscript written on cotton paper in
England is in the Bodleian collection of the British Museum, and bears date 1049.
The most ancient manuscript on the same material in the Library of
Paris is dated 1050.
In 1085 A. D., the
Christian successors of the
Spanish Saracens made paper of rags instead of raw cotton, which is recognized by its yellowness and brittleness.
A very early specimen of
linen paper is found in a manuscript bearing the date of 1100 A. D.; though some twelve years afterward we find Roger, king of
Sicily, granting a charter to some paper-makers who were then established on that island.
The paper made by them was, however, probably of cotton, which was then extensively grown in
Sicily.
In 1151, we learn from an Arabian author that paper of a superior quality was manufactured at
Xativa, in Spain, the
Christian Spaniards having improved upon the processes of the Moors, from whom they learned the art, by stamping the raw material, raw cotton and rags, by the aid of a watermill.
In 1170,
Eustathius, the commentator on
Homer, remarks that papyrus had fallen into disuse.
In 1178, we find several specimens of flax paper in
Spain, and in the
University of Riteln in
Germany a document is preserved, signed by Adolphus,
Count of Schaumberg, made from linen rags.
A letter from
Joinville to Louis X. of
France, dated 1315, and written on paper made from rags, is yet extant.
After this period the notices of paper and of paper-making become frequent.
Linen paper is found in documents of 1241 (edict of Emperor Fred. II.) and 1300.
The Arabian physician Abdollatiph, who visited
Egypt in 1200, says that the mummy-cloths (
linen) were habitually used to make
wrapping-paper for the shop-keepers.
The linen paper of the thirteenth century had the waterlines and water-mark.
One specimen had a tower.
The earliest manuscript on linen paper known to be English bears date fourteenth year of Edward III., 1320.
The first water-mark, a ram's head, is found in a book of accounts belonging to an official of
Bordeaux, which was then subject to
England, dated 1330.
It has been claimed that linen paper was made in
England as early as 1330, though it is supposed that no linen paper was made in
Italy previous to 1367.
In 1390,
Ulman Strother established a paper-mill at
Nuremberg in
Bavaria, operated by two rollers, which set in motion eighteen stampers.
This indicates the process of pulping the fiber by beating, which continued in use for nearly four centuries. This was the first paper-mill known to have been established in
Germany, and is said to have been the first in
Europe for manufacturing paper from linen rags.
In 1498, an entry appears among the privy expenses of Henry VII.
for “a reward given to the paper-mill,” 16
s. 8
d. This is probably the papermill mentioned by
Wynkin de Worde, the father of English typography.
It was located at
Hartford, and the water-mark he employed was a star within a double circle.
The jug or pot was a favorite water-mark about the middle of the fifteenth century, preceding the fool's cap, which has given its name to the largest size of writing-paper now in common use. About 1540, it appears that Henry VIII.
of
England, to show his animosity to the
Pope, with whom he had then quarreled, used for his private correspondence a
[
1607]
paper of which the water-mark was a hog with a miter.
The barbarous law of
England imposing a duty on paper appears to have had a precedent in
France under Charles IX., the author of the
St. Bartholomew massacre, who, in 1565, levied an impost on that article, which was soon abolished at the instigation of the
University of Paris.
It appears that wall-paper, as a substitute for tapestry or hangings, began to come into vogue about the year 1640.
It does not appear that the paper manufacture flourished in
England until after the revolution of 1688, as we find that in 1663
England imported from
Holland alone paper to the amount of £ 100,000.
This hardly preceded the establishment of paper manufactories in
America, as we find that
William Rittinghuysen, anglicized
Rittenhouse, — a name afterward memorable in the history of American science, — a native of
Holland, in conjunction with old
William Bradford, one of the earliest of American printers, who will be doubtless remembered by those who have read
Franklin's Autobiography, established a paper-mill at
Roxborough, near
Philadelphia, on a stream still called
Paper-mill Run, a tributary of the
Wissahickon.
The raw material for its supply was derived from linen rags, the produce of the old clothes of the vicinity, and native rags long continued to be the chief source from which American paper was derived.
In 1710 another paper-mill — the second in
America — was erected at
Crefeld, now forming part of
Germantown, by
William De Wees, a connection of the Rittenhouse family.
In 1724,
William Bradford endeavored to induce the New York legislative council to grant him a monopoly for the exclusive manufacture of paper for fifteen years, but was unsuccessful.
Reaumur in 1719 suggested, from the examination of wasps' nests, that a paper might be manufactured from wood, but we do not find this idea farther acted upon until a later period, when inventors seem to have exhausted their ingenuity, regardless of expense, in the selection of materials from which paper might be manufactured.
Paper, in fact, cannot, as a general thing, be economically made from fibrous material which has not already previously been manufactured.
That is to say, so long as the prices of vegetable fibrous substances, as cotton, flax, etc., remain the same, it will be much more economical to use them for the purpose of reducing into pulp for paper-making after they have already undergone the process of manufacture into clothing, than to take them in their raw state, when they may still be subservient to the economic physical wants of man.
Since Reaumur first suggested wood as a substance from which paper could be made, the articles proposed for that purpose have been almost innumerable; in fact, anything having a fibrous texture
may be used, and the question resolves itself into one of economy.
See pulp-boiler.
Koops in 1800 published a work on paper, which was printed on paper made of straw, with an appendix on paper made of wood.
A second edition was published in 1801, upon paper re-made from old printed and written paper.
In 1835, Piette published a work on the subject of “Paper from straw,” etc., giving 160 specimens.
In 1765,
Schaeffer, of
Ratisbon, printed a book on sixty varieties of paper made from as many different materials; a copy is now in the Smithsonian Institute Library.
In 1786, the
Marquis de Vilette published in
London a small book, printed on paper made from marsh mallow; at the end are leaves of paper manufactured at
Bruges from twenty different plants, such as nettles, hops, reeds, etc.
The following is a list of materials (numbering in all 402) from which paper has been made or proposed to be made, with references to the authorities from which the information has been derived.
paper-making materials.
The following materials, among others, have been used or suggested for paper-making.
The authorities are cited as follows : —
a refers to English patents.
b refers to Examiner's Digest, Patent Office.
c refers to
Munsell on Paper-making.
d refers to
Schaeffer on Paper.
e refers to “Central Blatt,” “Papierfabrikation,”
Dresden.
f refers to “Journal des Fabricants de papier,”
Paris.
g refers to “Die fabrication des Papieres,” Piette,
Coln.
| Abelmoschus esculentus, e, XIV. 17. | Broom corn, b. |
| Broom, swamp, b. |
| Abutilon avicennae, b. | Broussonesia, a; e, VI. 234, XVII 171. |
| Acacia, a; f, XII. 97, XIV. 354, XVI. 117. | Bryona, a. |
| Agave, a; d. | Buckwheat, a. |
| Alfa fiber, c. | Bulrushes, a. |
| Alga marina, b. | Burdock, a; d. |
| Algae (fresh-water), b. | Cabbage, b. |
| Aloe fiber, d. | Cabbage stumps, c. |
| Aloes, a; d; e, i. 107, III. 520, VI 210, x. 119, XIII. 117, 126, XIV. 17, XVII. 111; g, II. 114; f XIV 354. | Cactus, a. |
| Canes, a; b. |
| Cardanus metans, c. |
| Cat-tail down and leaves, d, |
| Alsimastrum, a. | Cecrops dracena, a. |
| Althea, e, XIII. 117. | Cedar wood, b. |
| Ammonum, a. | Cenodruli, a. |
| Anacharsis, a. | Chaff, f, III. 137, 148, 164, 184, IV. 3, 21, 33, 51, 66, 82, 164, v. 28, 117, 132, 189, 204, 221, VI. 87, 106, IX. 67, XII. 121. |
| Ananas (see Pineapple） |
| Animal excrement, a. |
| Animal substances, c. |
| Anonaceae, a. | China grass (Rhea), e, v. 142, VI. 222, XIII. 126, XVII. 171, XIX. 134; f, x. 369, XIV. 354, XVI. 117. |
| Apocineae, a. |
| Aporentype, c. |
| Arroche, c. |
| Artemisia bark, d. | Cissus family, a. |
| Artemisia wood, d. | Clematis bark, d. |
| Artichoke, a. | Clematis wood, d. |
| Artiplex, d. | Clematite, c. |
| Artocarpeae, a. | Clover, a. |
| Arundinaria macrosperma, b; c. | Coir, e, XIII. 126, XIV. 17. |
| Ashestus, a; b; d; g, II. 149; f, VIII. 296.
See also page 167, supra. | Coltsfoot, c. |
| Compositeae, a. |
| Conferva, c; d. |
| Asclepiadiae, a. | Coniferae leaves, a. |
| Asclepias, d; f, XI. 29. | Convolvulaceae, a. |
| Asparagus, a. | Coral moss, d. |
| Aspen, c; d; e, VII. 81, XVI. 184. | Cordage, a. |
| Asphodel, a. | Cork, a; e, XVII. 54. |
| Bagasse, a. | Corn cobs, b; c. |
| Bagging, c. | Corn husks, a; d. |
| Bamboo, a; b; e, XIV. 17, XVI. 71; f, XV. 187. | Corn leaves, c. |
| Corn stalks, b; c. |
| Banana, a; e, i. 107, III. 520, VI. 210, XVII. 171. | Coton du peuplier, c. |
| Cotton, a. |
| Bark of wood (various), e, v. 557; g, 31, 32, 33. | Cotton plant, b. |
| Cotton seed, b. |
| Barks of resinous woods, b. | Cotton stalks, b. |
| Barley straw, c. | Couchgrass, a. |
| Basswood, c. | Cruciferae, a. |
| Bean leaves, d. | Cryptogams, a. |
| Bean vines, a; e, XIII. 117. | Cucumbers, a. |
| Beans, b. | Cucurbitaceae, a. |
| Beechwood, d. | Cupheae, a. |
| Beet, a; e, III. 519, IX. 181, 186. | Cyprian asbestus, d. |
| Beet and mangold-wurzel root, b. | Daphne, e, IV. 673, VI. 210, 247, XIV. 17, XVII. 171, XVIII. 5. |
| Begonaceae, a. |
| Berries, a. | Decayed wood, c. |
| Birch, a; e, XIII. 184, XVIII. 9. | Diss, g, II. 115. |
| Blackberries, a. | Dog's grass, a. |
| Blue cabbage stalks, d. | Dunhee (Sesbanea aculeata), e, XIII. 126. |
| Blue grass, c. |
| Boehmeria, a; e, XIII. 126. | Dury, e, i. 248. |
| Bombax, a. | Dust, a. |
| Bracken, c. | Dwarf palm, c; e, XI. 210, XVII. 171. |
| Bran, a; c. |
| Brazil wood, d. | Dyewoods (spent), a. |
| Brazilian grass, c. | Earth moss, d. |
| Brewery refuse, a. | Ejoo, e, XIV. 17; f, XII. 19, 146. |
| Bromeliaceae, a; e, v. 142, VI. 210. XVII. 171. | Elder, a. |
| Elm, c. |
| Broom, a; e, v. 94, VI. 210, XIII. 117, XV. 113. | Ericaceae rushes, a. |
| Erigerone, c. |
[
1608]
| Erytoxylon guttafereae, a. | Lily root, a. |
| Esparte, c. | Lime, c. |
| Espartero, c. | Linden, c : e, XVIII. 9. |
| Esparto grass, b; c; e, XIV. 19, XV. 69, 108, 121, 138 : f, VI. 132, 150, 166, 186, VII. 5, 21, XIV. 178, 296; g, II. 24, 116, XVI. 187. | Linden leaves, d. |
| Linen, a. |
| Liquorice wood, c. |
| Liquorice root, e, IX. 173. |
| Long moss, e, VI. 249. |
| Euphorbiaceae, a. | Lucerne, a; f, XI. 361, 430. |
| Excrement of herb-eating animals, a; b; f, III. 59, VIII. 54. | Lucipodium equisetum, a. |
| Lychnophora, a. |
| Fenequen (Sisulhemp, Sosquil), e, VI. 247, XVII. 171. | Madder, a. |
| Maize, a; e, IX. 184, x. 358, XI. 10, XIII. 117, XIV. 33, XV. 31, 49, XVII. 171. |
| Ferns, a; f, III. 100, XIII. 117; g, II. 80, 81, 84. |
| Fibrilia, e, XIII. 117. | Maize husks, b. |
| Fir, c. | Mallow, d; e, XIII. 117. |
| Flags, a. | Malpighiaceae, a. |
| Flax, a; e, VI. 236, XIII. 117, XIV. 17; f, XIV. 354, XVI. 17, 119. | Malva, a. |
| Malvaceae, a. |
| Flax, New Zealand.
XIII. 126, XVI. 17, 282, XVII. 171. | Mandioca.
a. |
| Mangel-wurzel, a. |
| Flax, hemp, etc., b. | Manila, a; b. |
| Floss silk, c. | Manispernum, a. |
| Fourdrini, a. | Manure, c. |
| Frog spittle, c. | Maple, a. |
| Furze, a. | Marzi, a. |
| Galeg officinalis, b. | Masse-d'eau, c. |
| Galega orientalis, b. | Medichey, a. |
| Galingale, a. | Melastomaceae, a. |
| Genista, a; d. | Mineral fiber, b. |
| Genista after extracting dye, d. | Moorva, e, XIII. 126. |
| Geld (Marsdenia tenacissima), e, XIII. 126. | Morus bark, a. |
| Mosses, a; d; e, XVII. 171. |
| Gnaphalium, c. | Mothwort, c. |
| Gramina, a. | Mudar (Calotropis gigantea), e, XIII. 126, XVIII. 5. |
| Gramineae, a. |
| Grape-vine, inner and outer bark, d. | Mulberry, a; e, VI. 234, XIII. 117 : f, XII. 97, 167. |
| Grape-vines, c, XIII. 117. | Mulberry inner bark, d. |
| Grasses, a; e, XIII. 117; f, VII. 117. | Mulberry-trees, b; f, VIII. 262. |
| Mulberry wood, d. |
| Grass, Spanish, b. | Mummy cloth, c. |
| Grass, Tule, b. | Musaceae, a; e, VI. 247, XIII. 126, XVII. 171. |
| Gutta-percha, a. |
| Gunny, e, XVII. 4. | Muscovy mats, c. |
| Gun cotton, f, IV. 90. | Mustard, a. |
| Hair, a. | Mya grass, a. |
| Hay, a; g, II. 4. | Myrtaceae, a. |
| Heather, a; e, XIII. 117. | Nettle bark, d. |
| Hemp, a; d; e, VI. 222, XIII. 119, XVII. 171; f, XIV. 354, XVI. 17, 119. | Nettle wood, d. |
| Nettles, a; e, VI. 210, 234, XIII. 117; g, II. 21. |
| Hemp, flax, etc., b. | Oak, c. |
| Hemp, jute, dressed, b. | Oakum, c. |
| Hibiscus esculentus, b; c; e, VI. 249, 283, VIII. 126, XIV. 19, XVII. 171. | Okra (Hibiscus esculentus), b. |
| Orache, d. |
| Osier, a. |
| Hides, c. | Onocarpus, batava, e, XIV. 17. |
| Hollyhock, c. | Palm, dwarf, c. |
| Hop bark, d. | Palm, leaves, a. |
| Hop vines, a; d; e, VII. 77, XIII. 117, XVII. 171. | Palm palmetto, etc., b; e, XIII 117, XIV. 17; f, XIV. 296; g, II. 113. |
| Hornet's nest, c. |
| Horse-chestnut leaves, d. | Palmetto and chamoerops (palmetto cabbage), b. |
| Horse-dung, a. |
| Horse-radish, a. | Palygaleae, a. |
| Immortelle (cudweed, Gnaphalium), e, VI. 248. | Pampas grass, a. |
| Panax, a. |
| Indian-corn husks, d. | Pandanus, a. |
| Iris, a. | Pappus, c. |
| Ivory shavings, b; c. | Papyrus, a; f, XV. 162. |
| Indigo, e, XIII 117. | Pasteboard scraps, c. |
| Jucca (Yucca), e, XIII. 126. | Peas, b. |
| Juncaceae, a. | Pea stalks, a; e, XIII 117. |
| Juniper, a. | Peat, a; b; d |
| Jute, a; e, VI. 234, XIV. 17, XVII. 171; f, XIV. 17, 354; g, II. 129. | Pederia foetida, e, XIII. 126. |
| Phormium, a. |
| Phormium terrax, a. |
| Kaolin, f, i. 4, 12, v. 14, 84, 190, VI. 21, IX. 54. | Pine cones, d; e, XIV. 7, XVII. 171. |
| Libitaae, a. | Pine shavings, c. |
| Lace from aloe fiber, d | Pine-tree, inner bark of, b. |
| Leather, b; e, II. 302; f, i. 133, 136. | Pineapple leaves, a; e, XIII. 117, 126. |
| Leather cuttings, a | Pisang, e, XVII. 171; g, II. 125. |
| Leaves, c; e, VI. 319; f, i. 165 : g, II. 64. | Pita, e, v. 142, VI. 210, XIV. 17, XVII. 171. |
| Leaves of trees, b. | Plane-tree (buttonwood), e, VI. 247 |
| Leaves of trees, withered, c. |
| Lecistera formosa, a. | Plantain, c; e, VI. 210, 222, VIII. 142, XVII. 171. |
| Leguminous plants, a. |
| Lentils, e, v. 160. | Plantain cocoa, a. |
| Liliaceae, a. | Plantain-tree (Musa sapientum and paradisiaca), b. |
| Lily of the valley, c. |
| Lily of the valley leaves, d. | Pollen of plants, c. |
| Poplar, a; e, XVIII. 9. | Straw, barley, d. |
| Poplar down, d. | Straw paper.
Books printed on Koops's “Historical account,” 1800. |
| Poppy, g, II. 36. |
| Potatoes, d, IX. 126, 173, 182, XIII. 117. |
| Stypa spartum, a. |
| Potato skins, b; d. | Sugar-cane, a; e, XIII. 117; g, II. 113. |
| Potato-vines, b. |
| Pourretia plantanifolia, b. | Sultana bark, c. |
| Printed waste, c. | Sunflower, a; e, XVI. 13 |
| Pteris (brake), e, II. 52, 68, 84, 115, III. 6, 54. | Sunn, e, XIII. 126. |
| Sweet broom, e, XIII. 117. |
| Pulps, a. | Tan, e, |
| Pulungor, e, XIII. 126. | Tan bark, etc., b : e, III. 519, VI. 124, 287, x. 252; g, II. 89. |
| Rags, a. |
| Ramie, e, VIII., VI. 210. | Tan (spent), a. |
| Raspberry, a. | Tarred rope, f, x. 6, XI. 292. |
| Reed, d. | Terebinthenacae, a. |
| Reeds, a. | Thistle down, d. |
| Rhamneae, a. | Thistle stalks, d. |
| Rhubarb, a. | Thistles, a; e, XIII. 117; f, II. 126; g, II. 24. |
| Rice plant (Oryza), b. |
| Rice, stalks of the wild, b | Tillandsia, a. |
| Rice straw, a. | Tobacco, a; e, XI. 126. |
| Ricinus, a. | Tow, c : d : e, III. 519, VII. 121, x. 17, 119, 353. |
| Roots, a. |
| Roots of grasses, f, i. 182. II. 5, 19, 33. | Tracena endivisa, b. |
| Tree moss, d. |
| Rope, a. | Traphis, e, XVIII. 4. |
| Rosaceae, a. | Tulip leaves, d. |
| Rose mallow (Hibiscus), a. | Turf, a; d; e, IV. 671, VI. 210, 249, XI. 147, XXII. 171; g, II. 150. |
| Rubiaceae, a |
| Rue, c, XIII. 117 |
| Rushes, a : e, XIII. 117, XIV. 17, XVII. 171 : f, XV. 289. | Turnips, a. |
| Twitch grass, a. |
| Rutaceae, a. | Typha, d; e, XVII. 170. |
| Rye grass, a. | Typha lutefolia, b. |
| Sacks, old, c. | Ulmus, a. |
| Sago, b. | Ulva marina, c. |
| Satin, c. | Urticeae, a; e, XIII. 126, XIV. 17. |
| Sawdust, a; b; d. | Usnea, d. |
| Scotch ferns, c. | Vareek, e, XVII. 171; f, XI. 427. |
| Sea mallow, a. | Velloziae, a. |
| Sea grass, e, VI. 210, XVII. 171. | Vines, grape, d. |
| Sea weed, a; b. | Vines, hop. d. |
| Secrate, a. | Walnut leaves, d. |
| Sedge (auticle), b; e, VI. 210. | Wasps' nests, d. |
| Seed down of thistles, d. | Water broom, c. |
| Seratula ervansis, c. | Water lilies, a. |
| Shavings, d. | Water moss, d. |
| Shavings, wood, b. | Water plants, a; e, III. 519. |
| Shingles, old, d. | Water weeds, a. |
| Sida, a; e, XIII. 126. | Wayfaring tree, c. |
| Silk, a : g, II. 135. | Weeds, b. |
| Silk plant (Asclepias), d. | Wheat straw, b. |
| Skins, pieces of, b. | Whin, a. |
| Solaneae, a. | Whitewood, c. |
| Solonaceae, a. | Willow, a; e, XIII. 117, XVIII. 9. |
| Sorghum, a; b; f, XI. 436. | Willow, inner bark, d; e, v. 557; g, 31, 32, 33. |
| Sparganium family, a. |
| Spartium (Spanish broom), a; e, III. 594, x. 199, XVII. 171. | Willow twigs, c. |
| Willow wood, d. |
| Spartina juncea, b. | Wood, etc., a; b; e, III. 463, 519, v. 94, VI. 211, VII., VIII. 241, 375, IX. 183, x. 148, XI. 78, 81, 161, 177; Supplement, 16 : f, VI. 129, 197, VII. 23, 129, 135, 137, IX. 241, XIII. 184, XIV. 65, 273, XV. 150, XVI. 120; g, II. 36. |
| Spartina cynosuroides (cord grass), b. |
| Spindle-tree, c. |
| Spruce fire-wood, d. |
| Sterculia urens, e, XVI. 17. |
| Stinging nettle, d. |
| Stipa tenacissima, a. |
| Stone, c. | Woolen, a; g, II 134. |
| Stramonium or stinkweed, b. | Woolen grass (Typha), d. |
| Straw, a; b; e, XIII. 117; f, XI. 6, 20, 45, 325, 411, XII. 19, 43, XIII. 341, 364, XV. 1, 187; e, III. 449, 519, 557, 593, v. 13, 63, 109, 126, VI. 211, 319, IX. 184, x. 93, 202, XI. 38, XVI. 13, 127, XVII. 38, XX. 1; f, v. 51, 144, XV. 152. | Wrack grass, a. |
| Yellow wood after extracting dye, d. |
| Yucca filamentosa, Yucca angustifolia, Agr. Dep't Museum, 1868, e, XIII. 126. |
| Zopissa, e, XVI. 7, 68. |
In the modern process of paper-making, the rags, linen or cotton as the case may be, are sorted by hand into various qualities, proper for different kinds of paper, the best and finest of course being selected for the stock from which the better qualities of writing-paper are to be made.
The sorting is done by women and children, who work at tables covered with wire-net.
Each table has a stationary knife at its edge, against which the rags are drawn so as to divide them into shreds, the dust and dirt falling through the meshes into a receptacle below.
The sorted rags are next washed
[
1609]
with hot water and alkali, usually in a circular pan similar to the
bucking keir employed in bleaching, and are afterward reduced to pulp by the rag-engine.
It was formerly customary to allow them to ferment or rot by steeping them for several weeks in vats; but this practice, occasioning great loss and sometimes injuring the rags by discoloration, has caused the process to be superseded by the treatment of boiling in alkaline lye, by which a large saving is effected.
The fermentation, however, materially assists in the process of disintegration, rendering the pulping comparatively easy.
Pulping was formerly effected by beating in mortars of hard wood having an iron bottom provided with teeth, the pestles or hammers being grooved so as to cut the rags to pieces.
The hammers were either so arranged as to rise and fall perpendicularly, like the stamps of an ore-crusher, or else were so disposed as to operate in the manner of a trip-hammer.
The mortars were finally superseded by the rag-engine, which was invented in
Holland about the middle of the seventeenth century, and which still maintains its place in the manufacture.
Of these two are employed, sometimes arranged one above the other so that the stuff when partially pulped in the upper one may be let down into the lower.
The two are alike in general construction, consisting of an oblong trough with semicircular ends.
They are made of wood lined with lead, or may be entirely formed of cast-iron.
The trough is divided by a longitudinal partition, on one side of which is journaled a revolving cylinder provided with teeth.
This cylinder is capable of being raised or lowered, and works against a block fixed in the lower part of the trough, which is also provided with cutters corresponding to those of the cylinder.
The first or upper machine is termed the
washer, as into it the rags, after being boiled in lye, as previously described, are introduced.
A current of water is allowed to flow through the trough, and the roller, in its elevated position, is set in motion, which thoroughly washes and cleanses the rags.
The roller is then lowered in its bearings and the speed of rotation increased, causing a constant current circularly around the trough, carrying the pulp between the roller and the block until it is reduced to what is technically known as
half-staff, which is then transferred to the second engine, known as the
beater. During this part of the process the bleaching material is added.
The beater or pulping-engine is precisely similar to the washer, but its roller and block are provided with a larger number of cutters, and it is driven at a higher speed.
Size, and smalt for imparting a blue color to the paper, were formerly added at this stage of the process, but the latter practice has now fallen into disuse.
It is a pity that the same cannot be said with regard to barytes and other substances employed to impart whiteness and factitious weight to the paper, so as to make a very inferior article appear good to the unpracticed eye.
The pulp in its finished condition is called
whole stuff, and is run into a reservoir, whence it is taken out as wanted to supply the vats.
Formerly, all paper was made by hand, and it is believed that a better article can be produced in this way than machine made.
However this may be, machine-made paper has carried the day, and is now, perhaps, the only kind made in this country, though in
England and the Continent of
Europe hand-laid writing-paper is still manufactured.
The process is as follows : The pulp, after having been sufficiently comminuted in the beater, is transferred to the vat whence it is to be molded into sheets of paper.
The
mold is a shallow rectangular frame, having a top composed of close parallel longitudinal wires, which are crossed at more distant intervals by transverse wires of larger size.
The marks of these wires are very evident in examining old specimens of paper.
The water-mark is also inwoven into the mold, so as to leave its impress in the pulp in a way which cannot afterwards be eradicated.
To the mold is applied an open rectangular frame, called the
deckle, the interior dimensions of which exactly correspond with those of the intended sheet of paper.
It is held closely against the mold by the hands, and the two together are dipped into the vat containing the pulp and withdrawn horizontally, leaving a layer of pulp on the mold, to which a horizontal vibration is given while the water is draining off, in order to insure a uniform distribution of the pulp and consequent uniformity in the thickness of the paper.
When sufficiently drained, the deckle is removed from the mold, and the sheet of paper, now partially solidified, is transferred to a sheet of felt and covered with another sheet of the same material, on which another sheet of felt is laid, and so on alternately until a pile, usually of six quires, has accumulated, when the whole is transferred to a press, in which they are kept until an equal amount has again accumulated, when the first are removed, the alternating sheets of felt withdrawn, and the paper itself without the intermediate felts is again subjected to pressure.
It is then hung up to dry on racks overhead, two or three sheets deep, sized by dipping in a solution made from the clippings of leather and parchment, again dried and pressed, examined and sorted.
The blueing previously referred to constituted a part of the sizing process.
Smalt was formerly employed for this purpose, but was finally, to a great extent, superseded by ultramarine, which latter, however, had the disagreeable result of allowing the gelatine size to decompose, thus imparting a most offensive smell to the paper, as may be well recollected by those of our readers who may have been brought in contact with the blue writing-papers at one time so much in vogue.
In 1798, Robert announced that he had discovered a means of making by machinery paper of large size, even 12 feet wide and 50 feet long; and in the succeeding year the invention was carried into practical effect at the paper-mill of
Francois Didot, at
Essone, France, in whose employment Robert was at the time.
The invention was patented in this year.
In 1800, a reward of 8,000 francs was granted by the
French government to Robert, and permission was granted him to carry his working model to
England, where, in fact, the invention was first brought into practical working form.
Gamble, in 1801, obtained a patent for a machine similar to that of Robert, but the credit of introducing the machine into
England is due to the Fourdriniers and Donkin, the former of whom furnished the capital and the latter the skill.
Donkin completed his first machine, acting on the ideas of Robert, in 1803; and in the succeeding year,
Henry and
Sealy Fourdrinier purchased the patents of
Didot and
Gamble.
These gentlemen may be considered as the great introducers of machine-made paper, and, like many other projectors, were rewarded by impoverishment.
The
Fourdrinier machine (1) receives the pulp on an endless web of wire-cloth, which passes over rollers.
The
Dickenson machine (2) employs a perforated cylinder, which serves as a substitute for this endless web. See Plate XXXVII., paper-making machine, where several kinds of paper and cardboard machines are represented.
[
1610]
Two hundred and ninety-nine
Fourdrinier machines were running in the
United States in 1872.
In 1809,
Mr. Dickenson, an English paper-maker, invented the cylinder machine, in which a polished hollow brass cylinder, perforated with holes and covered with wire-cloth, is substituted for the endless wireweb of the Fourdrinier machine.
In this the air is exhausted through the trunnions or axis of the machine.
(See Plate XXXVII.) In the year 1872, 689 cylinder machines were running in the
United States.
The patents on the subject of paper-making are very numerous.
Donkin, however, who devoted so much time and talent to the matter, undoubtedly is entitled to the first rank after Robert, who suggested the idea of making paper in a continuous web.
One great difficulty to be obviated was the wetness of the sheet of pulp, which, of course, impaired its tenacity, rendering the manipulations exceedingly difficult.
This was, in a large degree, removed by the invention of the
dandy by
Wilkes, patented in
England in 1830.
This is a hollow perforated roller, corresponding to the
doffer of a carding-machine, over which the paper is caused to pass and is pressed under another roller.
The dandy may be so constructed as to exhaust the air from beneath the paper by forming it of an inner and exterior casing of sheet-metal, but in practice this has not been found necessary.
The introduction of threads, net, or other woven material into the paper is described in
Dickenson's English patent, 1809.
In the machine-made papers the trouble of assorting, trimming, and hanging up to dry is entirely avoided, a perfectly uniform thickness is attained, the time required to produce a sheet from the pulp is reduced from weeks to minutes, and sheets of indefinite length may be produced; for example, a sheet was made at
Colinton, England, in 1839, on the Fourdrinier machine, over a mile long, 50 inches wide, and weighing 533 pounds. This length might perhaps be extended indefinitely.
Dickenson, who has been already mentioned as the inventor of the cylinder paper-machine, invented a paper composed of two webs of different texture, which were united while in a pliant condition, so as to render them inseparable; the web constituting the face was made of finer material than that intended for the back.
This paper was particularly designed for copperplate printing.
To prevent counterfeiting special papers have been devised, such as that used by the Bank of England and by the United States Treasury Department.
In these cases the difficulty of manufacturing a similar article is relied on to prevent fraud; complicated and expensive machinery, not within the reach of ordinary counterfeiters, being required.
The paper on which
United States currency is printed contains silk fiber mixed with the pulp, producing a peculiar appearance, which is readily recognized, and which would be difficult, if not impossible, to imitate without the aid of the peculiar machinery by which the paper is produced.
A paper has also been made with a knitted fabric inclosed, which leaves an unerasable mark on the back of the fabric, and prevents all erasures and alterations of writing on its surface.
Analine (
an, priv., without
line, i. e. flax) is a name applied to paper destitute of flax, and must not be confounded with
aniline.
Spongepaper is made by adding finely divided sponge to ordinary paper pulp.
The paper absorbs moisture readily and retains it for a long time.
It has been used to advantage for dressing wounds, and is capable of several important technical applications.
Incombustible paper and cloth were made of asbestus in the time of Pliny.
The pulp is prepared in the usual manner from a pulp consisting of vegetable fiber, asbestus, alum, and borax, in about the following proportions : Vegetable fiber, one part; asbestus, two parts; borax, one tenth part; and alum, two tenths of a part.
The vegetable fibers are minutely divided, and treated in the manner usual in the production of ordinary paper; the asbestus is also divided as much as possible, and the two are then intimately mixed with the alum and borax in a sufficient quantity of water to make a pulp of the requisite consistency, which is then made into paper by any of the well-known processes.
The fire-proof ink for writing or printing on incombustible paper is made according to the following recipe : Graphite, finely ground, 22 drams; copal or other resinous gum, 12 grains; sulphate of iron, 2 drams; tincture of nutgalls, 2 drams; and sulphate of indigo, 8 drams.
These substances are thoroughly mixed and boiled in water, and the ink thus obtained is said to be both fire-proof and insoluble in water.
When any other color but black is desired, the graphite is replaced by an earthy mineral pigment of the desired color.
Paper is rendered transparent by a varnish composed of
Canada balsam dissolved in turpentine.
Carbolic-acid paper is now much used for packing fresh meats for the purpose of preserving them against spoiling.
The paper is prepared by melting five parts of stearine at a gentle heat, and then stirring in thoroughly two parts of carbolic acid, after which five parts of melted paraffine are added.
The whole is to be well stirred together till it cools, after which it is melted and applied with a brush to the paper, in quires, in the same way as in preparing the waxed paper so much used in
Europe for wrapping various articles.
sizes of papers.
| Printing Papers. |
| Sheet. | Folio. | 4to. | 8vo. | 16mo. | 32mo. |
| Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. |
| Demy | 22 1/2 × 17 1/2 | 17 1/2 × 11 3/4 | 11 1/4 × 8 3/4 | 8 3/4 × 5 1/2 | 5 1/2 × 4 3/4 | 4 3/4 × 2 3/4 |
| Medium | 24 × 19 | 19 × 12 | 12 × 9 1/2 | 9 1/2 × 6 | 6 × 4 3/4 | 4 3/4 × 3 |
| Royal | 25 × 20 | 20 × 12 1/2 | 12 1/2 × 10 | 10 × 6 1/4 | 6 1/4 × 5 | 5 × 3 1/4 |
| Super-royal | 27 1/2 × 20 1/2 | 20 1/2 × 13 3/4 | 13 3/4 × 10 1/4 | 10 1/4 × 6 3/4 | 6 3/4 × 5 1/8 | 5 1/8 × 3 1/4 |
| Imperial | 30 × 22 | 22 × 15 | 15 × 11 | 11 × 7 1/2 | 7 1/2 × 5 1/2 | 5 1/2 × 3 1/4 |
| Double foolscap | 27 × 17 | 17 × 13 1/2 | 13 1/2 × 8 1/2 | 8 1/2 × 6 3/4 | 6 3/4 × 4 1/4 | 4 1/4 × 3 1/4 |
| Double crown | 30 × 20 | 20 × 15 | 15 × 10 | 10 × 7 1/2 | 7 1/2 × 5 | 5 × 3 3/4 |
| Double post | 32 × 20 | 20 × 16 | 16 × 10 | 10 × 8 | 8 × 5 | 5 × 4 |
| Drawing Papers. |
| Emperor | 72 × 48 | 48 × 36 | 36 × 24 | 24 × 18 | 18 × 12 | 12 × 9 |
| Antiquarian | 53 × 31 | 31 × 26 1/2 | 26 1/2 × 15 1/2 | 15 1/2 × 13 1/4 | 13 1/4 × 7 3/4 | 7 3/4 × 6 1/2 |
| Double elephant | 40 × 26 3/4 | 26 3/4 × 20 | 20 × 13 1/4 | 13 1/4 × 10 | 10 × 6 1/2 | 6 1/2 × 5 |
| Atlas | 36 × 26 | 26 × 18 | 18 × 13 | 13 × 9 | 9 × 6 1/2 | 6 1/2 × 4 1/2 |
| Columbia | 34 1/2 × 23 1/2 | 23 1/2 × 17 1/4 | 17 1/4 × 11 3/4 | 11 3/4 × 8 1/2 | 8 1/2 × 5 3/4 | 5 3/4 × 4 1/4 |
| Imperial | 30 × 22 | 22 × 15 | 15 × 11 | 11 × 7 1/2 | 7 1/2 × 5 1/2 | 5 1/2 × 3 3/4 |
| Elephant | 28 × 23 | 23 × 14 | 14 × 11 1/2 | 11 1/2 × 7 | 7 × 5 3/4 | 5 3/4 × 3 1/2 |
| Writing Papers. |
| Super-royal | 27 × 19 | 19 × 13 1/2 | 13 1/2 × 9 1/2 | 9 1/2 × 6 3/4 | 6 3/4 × 4 3/4 |
| Royal | 24 × 19 | 19 × 12 | 12 × 9 1/2 | 9 1/2 × 6 | 6 × 4 3/4 |
| Medium | 22 × 17 1/2 | 17 1/2 × 11 | 11 × 8 3/4 | 8 3/4 × 5 1/2 | 5 1/2 × 4 1/4 |
| Demy | 20 × 15 1/2 | 15 1/2 × 10 | 10 × 7 3/4 | 7 3/4 × 5 | 5 × 3 3/4 |
| Large post | 20 3/4 × 16 3/4 | 16 3/4 × 10 1/4 | 10 1/4 × 8 1/4 | 8 1/4 × 5 1/8 | 5 1/8 × 4 1/8 |
| Small post | 19 × 15 1/4 | 15 1/4 × 9 1/2 | 9 1/2 × 7 1/2 | 7 1/2 × 4 3/4 | 4 3/4 × 3 3/4 |
| Foolscap | 17 × 13 1/2 | 13 1/2 × 8 1/2 | 8 1/2 × 6 3/4 | 6 3/4 × 4 1/4 | 4 1/4 × 3 1/4 |
[
1611]
Copperplate papers are made the same size as drawing-papers down to
medium. Below this they are cut by the printer.
The paper is more absorbent than
drawing-paper.
This absorbent paper is without size, and is known as
soft plate.
When engravings are to be colored, they are printed on sized drawing-paper, which is known as
hard plate when used in this connection.
See under the following heads: —
| Addressing-machine. | Knotter. |
| Antiquarian paper. | Label. |
| Ass. | Lace. |
| Atlas-paper. | Laid-paper. |
| Autographic paper. | Letter-clip. |
| Bark-paper. | Letter-file. |
| Bath note-paper. | Letter-paper. |
| Beating-engine. | Letter-stamping machine. |
| Bill-holder. | Lifter. |
| Billet-note. | Linen-paper. |
| Binder's board. | Lithographic paper. |
| Blotter. | Littress. |
| Blotting-paper. | Mailing-machine. |
| Board. | Manilla-paper. |
| Bond-paper. | Map and chart holder. |
| Bristol board. | Marble-paper. |
| Bronzing. | Medium. |
| Brown paper. | Metallic paper. |
| Calendering-paper. | Mill-board. |
| Cap-paper. | Music-paper. |
| Card-board. | Nepaul-paper. |
| Card-cutting machine. | Newspaper clamp. |
| Carton. | Newspaper-folder. |
| Carton-pierre. | Oiled paper. |
| Cartridge-paper. | Paper-bag machine. |
| Case-paper. | Paper-boat. |
| Cloth-paper. | Paper-box machine. |
| Columbier. | Paper-clip. |
| Copy-paper. | Paper-cloth. |
| Copying-paper. | Paper-collar. |
| Cosaques. | Paper-coloring. |
| Cotton-paper. | Paper-cutting machine. |
| Cross-rule paper. | Paper-enameling machine. |
| Crown-paper. | Paper floor-cloth. |
| Curtain-paper. | Paper-folding machine. |
| Cylinder-engine. | Paper-gage. |
| Dandy. | Paper-hanging. |
| Dekle. | Paper hot-pressing. |
| Demy. | Paper-knife. |
| Devil. | Paper-making machine. |
| Diluting roller. | Paper-mold. |
| Doctor. | Paper-muslin. |
| Double-cap. | Paper-punch. |
| Double-elephant. | Paper-polishing machine. |
| Double-imperial. | Paper-size. |
| Double-medium. | Paper-splitting. |
| Double-royal. | Paper-stock bleacher. |
| Double super-royal. | Paper-stock washer. |
| Drawing-paper. | Paper-tube machine. |
| Drum-paper. | Paper-twine. |
| Drying-paper. | Papier-mache. |
| Dry-press. | Parchment-paper. |
| Duster. | Pasteboard. |
| Elephant. | Pasteboard-cutter. |
| Embossed paper. | Peel. |
| Embossing-machine. | Perforating-machine. |
| Enameled board. | Porcelain-paper. |
| Enamel-paper. | Portfolio. |
| Engine-sized. | Post. |
| Envelope. | Potcher engine. |
| Envelope-dryer. | Pottery-tissue. |
| Envelope-machine. | Pott. |
| Exchange-cap. | Pounce-paper. |
| Fanning-out. | Printing-paper. |
| Filer. | Profile-paper. |
| Filtering-paper. | Protective paper. |
| Finisher. | Pulp. |
| Flat-cap. | Pulp-boiler. |
| Flock. | Pulp-dresser. |
| Folding-machine. | Pulping-machine. |
| Foolscap. | Pulp.
Making articles from Pulp-mill. |
| Forming-cylinder. | |
| Fourdrinier-machine. | Pulp-washer. |
| Glazed board. | Quire. |
| Glazing-machine. | Rag-dusting machine. |
| Half-stuff machine. | Rag-engine. |
| Hog. | Razor-paper. |
| Hot-press. | Ream. |
| Imperial. | Register. |
| India-paper. | Rice-paper. |
| Inkstand. | Roll-blotter. |
| Ivory-paper. | Roofing-paper. |
| Rotary cutter. | Token. |
| Royal. | Toned paper. |
| Ruling-machine. | Touch-paper. |
| Safety-paper. | Tracing-paper. |
| Sheathing-paper. | Transfer-paper. |
| Stamp-attacher. | Tribble-paper. |
| Straw-board. | Vegetable-parchment. |
| Straw-boiler. | Velvet-paper. |
| Straw-paper. | Wall-paper. |
| Stuff-chest. | Wall-paper cutter. |
| Stuff-engine. | Washer. |
| Stuff-shovel. | Water-mark. |
| Super-royal. | Water-proofing paper. |
| Tar-board. | Wet-press. |
| Test-paper. | Wood-paper. |
| Tinted paper. | Wove-paper. |
| Tip-paper. | Wrapping-paper. |
| Tissue-paper. | Writing-case. |
| Tobacco-paper. | Writing-paper. |
