Forms of the verbal predicate
Voices of the Verb
[*] 137. There are three voices in Greek: Active, Middle, and Passive. The distinction of passive from middle is a distinction of function, not of form. The terminations of the passive are either middle or active, and only one comparatively late form is uniformly differentiated, the future in -“θήσομαι”, which is constructed on the basis of -“θην”, itself only prevalently passive.Active Voice
[*] 138. The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the subject. “οὖτος ἔγημε”, DEM. [46]DEM., 21; This man got married (26). “τὸ παιδίον ἐβόα,” LYS.1.11 ; The baby was bawling (26). [*] 139. Transitive and intransitive verbs. Verbs that regularly take an object are called transitive verbs, verbs that do not regularly take an object are called intransitive verbs. So “κτείνω”, I kill, is a transitive verb; “σιωπῶ”, I am silent, is an intransitive verb. But any verb may be transitive or intransitive, according to its use, and the traditional distinction given is a mere matter of convenience, and does not rest on a difference of nature. [*] 140. As all verbs involve an inner object and may take an inner object, it is better to confine the term transitive to verbs that take an outer object, and when such verbs are used without an outer object, they serve to characterize the subject. So “φονεύω”, I commit murder, and “νικῶ”, I gain a victory, become I am a murderer (“φονεύς”), and I am a victor (“νικητής”). “ἄγει” (PIND. P. 2.17), she is a leader, she is in the van. [*] 141. Periphrases with gi/gnomai. The analysis given above is sometimes expressed. So “ἀνατρέπω”, I overturn, may be analyzed into “ἀνατροπεὺς γίγνομαι”, I show myself a subverter, or “ἀνατροπὴν ποιοῦμαι”, I produce subversion. The former dwells on the character of the agent, the latter on the character of the action. Hence the solemnity of both the periphrases, involving as they do moral responsibility. Compare 61 and A. J. P. xx, III. ISOC.2.17: “μάλιστα μὲν εὑρετὴς γίγνου τῶν βελτίστων, εἰ δὲ μή, μιμοῦ τὰ παρὰ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὀρθῶς ἔχοντα”. 10.42: “τῶν δὲ δωρεῶν ἀναγκασθεὶς γενέσθαι κριτής”. Ibid. 43: “ἐπεθύμησε Διὸς γενέσθαι κηδεστής”. ANT. 1.2(see 61). 1.4 (60). 2 “β” 2: “ἐμοὶ δὲ ζῶν τε ἅνθρωπος ἀνατροπεὺς τοῦ οἴκου ἐγένετο κτἑ”. 5.47: “καὶ τῶν μὲν . . . λόγων . . . τουτουσὶ κριτὰς ἠξιώσατε γενέσθαι, τῶν δὲ ἔργων αὐτοὶ δικασταὶ ἐγένεσθε”, et sim. alib. PLATO, Conv. 218C: “σὺ ἐμοὶ δοκεῖς, ἦν δ᾽ ἐγώ, ἐμοῦ ἐραστὴς ἄξιος γεγονέναι μόνος”. Legg. 872 C: “ἐὰν δέ τις δοῦλον κτείνῃ μηδὲν ἀδικοῦντα, φόβῳ δέ, μὴ μηνυτὴς αἰσχρῶν ἔργων καὶ κακῶν αὐτοῦ γίγνηται κτἑ”. XEN. Ag. 10.4 (64). THUC.1.4: “καὶ τῶν Κυκλάδων νήσων ἦρξέ τε καὶ οἰκιστὴς πρῶτος τῶν πλείστων ἐγένετο”. 1.132.5: “μηνυτὴς γίγνεται” . 1.136.3: “ἱκέτης γενόμενος” . 3.2.3 (60). 5.11.1: “σωτῆρα . . . γεγενῆσθαι” . Cf. 8.48.6: “ποριστὰς ὄντας καὶ ἐσηγητὰς τῶν κακῶν τῷ δήμῳ” . 8.86.4: “κωλυτὴς γενέσθαι” , and similarly elsewhere. AR. Ran. 1152: “σωτὴρ γενοῦ μοι” . 1191: “ἵνα μὴ ᾿κτραφεὶς γένοιτο τοῦ πατρὸς φονεύς” . EUR. Cf. [Rhes.] 167: “σὺ δ᾽ ἀλλὰ γήμας Πριαμιδῶν γαμβρὸς γενοῦ”. SOPH. Ai. 1092 (61). O. C. 582: “ὅταν . . . σύ μου ταφεὺς γένῃ” . AESCHYL. Ag. 224-5: “ἔτλα δ᾽ οὖν” | “θυτὴρ γενέσθαι θυγατρός”. Cho. 2 (61). Ibid. 246: “θεωρὸς . . . γενοῦ”. Sept. 130 (61). PIND. P. 4.274: “εἰ μὴ θεὸς ἁγεμόνεσσι κυβερνατὴρ γένηται”. HOM. Od. 17.223: “εἴ μοι δοίης σταθμῶν ῥυτῆρα γενέσθαι”. Il. 18.100: “ἐμεῦ δὲ δέησεν ἀρῆς ἀλκτῆρα γενέσθαι”. [*] 142. Transitive verbs used intransitively. Among the active transitive verbs that are freely used intransitively and are sometimes called immediatives may be mentioned “ἐλαύνω”, I drive, and its compounds; the compounds of “ἵημι”, I send forth; “βάλλω”, I hit, cast, and compounds of “βάλλω”. The following is a more complete list of the verbs belonging to this class: “ἄγειν” and cpd.1 , “αἴρειν” and cpd., cpd. of “ἀλλάττειν”, cpd. of “ἀνύειν, βάλλειν” and cpd., cpd. of “διδόναι, δινεῖν, ἐλαύνειν” and cpd., “ἐπείγειν, ἔχειν” and cpd., “ἱέναι” and cpd., “ἀνακαλύπτειν, κεύθειν”, cpd. of “κλίνειν”, cpd. of “λαμβάνειν”, cpd. of “λείπειν”, cpd. of “μιγνύναι, μινύθειν, νικᾶν, νωμᾶν” and cpd., “οἰκεῖν, ὁρμᾶν” and cpd., “παύειν, πράττειν, στέλλειν, στρέφειν” and cpd., “τείνειν” and cpd., “τελευτᾶν, φαίνειν” and cpd., “φέρειν” and cpd., “φύειν, χαλᾶν”. “ἐγὼ δέ, ἔφη, ἐπὶ τούσδε, ἢν ἐπὶ δὲ κινῶνται, ἐλῶ,” XEN. Cyr. 1.4.20 ; I will ride against (charge) these people, if they undertake to move against you. “ἐξίησι δὲ . . . Ἀχερουσία λίμνη ἐς θάλασσαν: διὰ δὲ τῆς Θεσπρωτίδος Ἀχέρων ποταμὸς ῥέων ἐσβάλλει ἐς αὐτήν,” THUC.1.46.4 ; The Acherusian lake has an outlet into the sea, while the river Acheron, flowing through Thesprotia, empties (itself) into the lake itself. DEM.19.163: “ἀπῆραν διὰ τοῦ πολεμίου στρατεύματος εἰς Παγασάς”. PLATO, Phaedr. 228E: “παῦε”. Ibid. 229 A: “πρόαγε δή”. Ibid. 229 B: “προάγοις ἄν”. XEN. Cyr. 1.4.20 (see above). Ibid.: “ὁ Κυαξάρης λαβὼν τῶν ἐρρωμένων ἵππων τε καὶ ἀνδρῶν προσελαύνει” . THUC.1.46.4(see above). 6.60.2: “καθ᾽ ἡμέραν ἐπεδίδοσαν μᾶλλον ἐς τὸ ἀγριώτερον” . HDT.2.8: “οὖρος ἄλλο πέτρινον τείνει . . . τεταμένον τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον κτἑ”. AR. Eq. 243: “οὐκ ἐλᾶτε πρὸς τὸ δεξιόν κέρας”; Will you not ride to the right wing? N. 133: “βάλλ᾽ ἐς κόρακας”, Get thee gone to the buzzards (a common imprecation). Ran. 580: “παῦε παῦε τοῦ λόγου”. EUR. El. 1233-5: “ἀλλ᾽ οἵδε δόμων ὑπὲρ ἀκροτάτων” | “φαίνουσί τινες δαίμονες ἢ θεῶν” | “τῶν οὐρανίων”. SOPH. El. 1435: “ᾗ νοεῖς ἔπειγε νῦν” . O. R. 967-8: “ὁ δὲ θανὼν κεύθει κάτω δὴ γῆς” . HES. O. et D. 244: “μινύθουσι δὲ οἶκοι”. Sc.449: “ἀλλ᾽ ἄγε παῦε μάχης”. HOM. Od. 7.130: “ἡ δ᾽” (sc. “κρήνη”) “ἑτέρωθεν ὑπ᾽ αὐλῆς οὐδὸν ἵησιν”. 11.239: “ὃς πολὺ κάλλιστος ποταμῶν ἐπὶ γαῖαν ἵησιν”. Il. 12.268: “νείκεον, ὅν τινα πάγχυ μάχης μεθιέντα ἴδοιεν”. 23.758-9: “ὦκα δ᾽ ἔπειτα” | “ἔκφερ᾽ Ὀιλιάδης”. [*] 143. Infinitive active apparently as a passive. The infinitive being a verbal noun is not so strictly bound by the voices as the finite form. The infinitive as a complement to adjectives and the so-called epexegetic infinitive often coincide with the English idiom in which “good to eat” is “good for food,” “fair to see” is “fair to the sight,” and in Greek the active form is more common and, if anything, more natural than the passive. “καλὸς ἰδεῖν”, fair to see; “χαλεπὰ εὑρεῖν”, PLATO, Rpb. 412B, hard to find; but “χαλεποὶ . . . γνωσθῆναι”, ANTIPHON, 2 a 1, hard to recognize. See Infinitive. [*] 144. Causative active. As in other languages, the subject is said to do what it causes to be done, qui facit per alium, facit per se. “ἡ βουλὴ ἔδησε” (sc. “αὐτούς”), XEN. Hell. 1.7.3; The senate put them in jail. LYS.12.23: “τὸν ἀδελφὸν γάρ μου, ὥσπερ καὶ πρότερον εἶπον, Ἐρατοσθένης ἀπέκτεινεν” (Polemarchos drank the cup at the command of the Thirty, l.c. § 17). PLATO , Meno 94 C: “Θουκυδίδης αὖ δύο υἱεῖς ἔθρεψε . . . καὶ τούτους ἐπαίδευσε τά τε ἄλλα εὖ καὶ ἐπάλαισαν κάλλιστα Ἀθηναίων”, et sim. alib. XEN. An. 1.4.10: “Κῦρος δ᾽ αὐτὸν” (sc. “τὸν παράδεισον”) “ἐξέκοψε καὶ τὰ βασίλεια κατέκαυσεν”. Hell. 1.7.3 (see above). HDT.8.118: “ὡς δὲ ἐκβῆναι τάχιστα ἐς γῆν τὸν Ξέρξην . . . ἀποταμεῖν τὴν κεφαλὴν αὐτοῦ” (sc. “τοῦ κυβερνήτου”). For Intransitive Verbs of Passive Signification, see 171.Middle Voice
[*] 145. The Middle Voice denotes that the subject is in some especial manner involved or interested in the action of the verb. In some of its uses the middle corresponds to the English reflexive, but the signification is much wider and shades off from what is practically a direct reflexive until it ceases to present any translatable difference from the active. [*] 146. Direct reflexive middle. The interest may be that of the direct object. This is limited chiefly to natural or habitual actions. The only middle for self-murder is “ἀπάγξασθαι”, to hang oneself, which seems to have been the most natural form of suicide. “ἐπειδὴ δὲ ἐλούσατο”, PLATO , Phaedo, 116 B; After he had bathed himself (taken his bath). DEM. [50]DEM., 35: “λοῦσθαι ἐν βαλανείῳ”. PLATO , Phaedo, 116 B (see above). XEN. Cyr. 3.1.25: “οἱ μὲν ῥιπτοῦντες ἑαυτούς, οἱ δ᾽ ἀπαγχόμενοι, οἱ δ᾽ ἀποσφαττόμενοι”. THUC.3.81.3: “ἐκ τῶν δένδρων τινὲς ἀπήγχοντο”. HDT.2.40: “τύπτονται πάντες”, All beat their breasts (natural expression of grief). 2.131: “ἡ παῖς ἀπήγξατο”, The maid hanged herself. AR. Ach. 17: “ἐξ ὅτου ᾿γὼ ῥύπτομαι”, I scour myself. Av. 1163: “ἀπονίψομαι” , I'll wash myself, i. e. my hands. Thesm. 230: “ποῖ στρέφει”; fr. 2.1100.9: “ἀλλ᾽ ἀρτίως κατέλιπον αὐτὴν σμωμένην” | “ἐν τῇ πυέλῳ”. PIND. O. 7.15: “ἄνδρα παρ᾽ Ἀλφειῷ στεφανωσάμενον”. Ibid. 80-1: “τῶν ἄνθεσι Διαγόρας” | “ἐστεφανώσατο δίς”. 12.17: “στεφανωσάμενος”. SAPPHO, fr. 62: “καττύπτεσθε κόραι”. AM.16: “κἠλειφόμην μύροισι καὶ θυώμασιν”. HOM. Od. 5.491: “ὣς Ὀδυσεὺς φύλλοισι καλύψατο”. Il. 10.576: “λοέσαντο”, They bathed themselves. [*] 147. Indirect middle. Much more frequent is the indirect middle, in which the subject is more or less remotely involved, sometimes with sharp distinction from the active, sometimes without any perceptible, or at any rate translatable, difference. See the examples of this and the following section. “μέθην δὲ καὶ ὕπνον ὁμοίως ἐνέδρᾳ φυλάττομαι”, XEN. Hiero, 6.3; Drunkenness and sleep I guard against like an ambush. (“φυλάττω” = keep guard, mount guard over.） LYCURG.85: “οὐδ”（“ὲ”) . . . “τὴν θρεψαμένην . . . τοῖς πολεμίοις παρέδοσαν”, Nor did they surrender to the enemy the country that reared them for herself. DEM.20.17: “ἧς ἄν τινος πολιτείας τὸ κομίζεσθαι τοὺς εὔνους τοῖς καθεστῶσιν χάριν ἐξέλῃς, οὐ μικρὰν φυλακὴν αὐτῶν ταύτην ἀφῃρηκὼς ἔσει”. XEN. Hiero, 6.3 (see above). [R. A.] 1.1: “εὖ διασῴζονται τὴν πολιρείαν”, Excellently well do they preserve their form of government. HDT.2.121: “μνημόσυνα ἐλίπετο τὰ προπύλαια”. 3.79: “σπασάμενοι δὲ τὰ ἐγχειρίδια”. 7.119: “ἀπελαύνεσκον, λείποντες οὐδὲν ἀλλὰ φερόμενοι”. AR. Ach. 51-2: “ἐμοὶ δ᾽ ἐπέτρεψαν οἱ θεοὶ” | “σπονδὰς ποιεῖσθαι πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους μόνῳ”, The gods permitted me and me alone to make a treaty for myself with the Lacedaemonians. But vv. 57-8: “τὸν ἄνδρ᾽ ἀπάγοντες, ὅστις ἡμῖν ἤθελε” | “σπονδὰς ποιῆσαι” (the generous creature), Taking away the man who wished to make a treaty for us. Ibid. 130-1: “ἐμοὶ” . . . | “σπονδὰς ποίησαι πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους μόνῳ”. COM. 4.355.539: “χθὼν πάντα κομίζει καὶ πάλιν κομίζεται”, Earth bringeth everything and takes it back again; Nam terra donat ac resorbet omnia. AESCHYL. Sept. 718: “ἀλλ᾽ αὐτάδελφον αἷμα δρέψασθαι θέλεις”; What! wilt thou make thee a harvest of thy brother's blood? fr. 44: “ἡ δὲ” (sc. “γαῖα”) “τίκτεται βροτοῖς” | “μήλων τε βοσκὰς καὶ βίον Δημήτριον”. PIND. O. 7.42: “σεμνὰν θυσίαν θέμενοι”. 8.68-9: “ἀπεθήκατο . . . νόστον ἔχθιστον”. N. 2.6-10 (148). I. 5.60-1: “ἄραντο γὰρ νίκας ἀπὸ παγκρατίου” | “τρεῖς”. HOM. Il. 4.529-30: “ἐκ δ᾽ ὄβριμον ἔγχος” | “ἐσπάσατο στέρνοιο”, From out the breast he plucked the ponderous spear, and similarly 5.621: “ἐσπάσατ”（“ο”), 7.255: “ἐκσπασσαμένω”, and 13.510: “ἐσπάσατ”（“ο”); but the active is used 5.859; 6.65; 12.395; and 13.178 (see 148). 11.802-3: “ῥεῖα δέ κ᾽ ἀκμῆτες κεκμηότας ἄνδρας ἀυτῇ” | “ὤσαισθε προτὶ ἄστυ νεῶν ἄπο καὶ κλισιάων”, and similarly 5.691; 8.295; 15.418; 16.592; 655; but 16.44-5: “ῥεῖα δέ κ᾽ ἀκμῆτες κεκμηότας ἄνδρας ἀυτῇ” | “ὤσαιμεν προτὶ ἄστυ νεῶν ἄπο καὶ κλισιάων”, and so the active 8.336; 13.193; 16.569; 17.274 (see also 148). Homer has a certain fondness for the middle. So, for example, “ἰδέσθαι” occurs 38 times over against the 19 instances of “ἰδέειν” or “ἰδεῖν”. The middle forms of “ὁράω” are not uncommon, whereas in prose we have only “προορᾶσθαι”. The verse has something to do with all this. So “ἰδών” is the only possible form for the aorist participle. [*] 148. Active for the indirect middle. The middle is not compulsory. The use of the active where the middle might have been expected may sometimes be ascribed to the aristocratic disdain of effect (see Pindaric examples below), just as in late Greek the middle is sometimes used in order to produce a grander sound. “τὰ χρήματα . . . ἐξεκόμισε”, LYCURG.38; He got his money out safe. LYCURG.38(see above). PLATO, Protag. 324D: “οἱ ἄνδρες οἱ ἀγαθοὶ . . . τοὺς αὑτῶν υἱεῖς διδάσκουσι ἃ διδασκάλων ἔχεται”, with which compare ibid. 325 D: “οἱ ἀγαθοὶ ἄνδρες . . . τὰ μὲν ἄλλα διδάσκονται τοὺς υἱεῖς . . . τὰ μὲν ἄλλα ἄρα τοὺς υἱεῖς διδάσκονται”. HDT.2.51: “τοῦ δὲ Ἑρμέω τὰ ἀγάλματα ὀρθὰ ἔχειν τὰ αἰδοῖα ποιεῦντες οὐκ ἀπ᾽ Αἰγυπτίων μεμαθήκασι, ἀλλ̓ ἀπὸ Πελασγῶν”, with which compare just below: “ὀρθὰ ὦν ἔχειν τὰ αἰδοῖα τἀγάλματα τοῦ Ἑρμέω Ἀθηναῖοι πρῶτοι Ἑλλήνων μαθόντες παρὰ Πελασγῶν ἐποιήσαντο”. 2.143: “ἀρχιερεὺς γὰρ ἕκαστος αὐτόθι ἱστᾷ” (v. l. “ἵσταται”) “ἐπὶ τῆς ἑωυτοῦ ζόης εἰκόνα ἑωυτοῦ”. PIND. P. 1.49: “οἵαν” (sc. “τιμάν”) “οὔτις Ἑλλάνων δρέπει”, and similarly P. 4.130 and 6.48; with which compare N. 2.6-10: “ὀφείλει δ᾽ ἔτι . . . θαμὰ μὲν Ἰσθμιάδων δρέπεσθαι κάλλιστον ἄωτον . . . Τιμονόου παῖδ”（“α”). HOM. Il. 5.859: “ἐκ δὲ δόρυ σπάσεν αὖτις”, And out again he plucked the shaft; and similarly 6.65; 12.395; 13.178. (For the use of the middle in similar examples, see 147). Ibid. 8.336: “οἳ δ᾽ ἰθὺς τάφροιο βαθείης ὦσαν Ἀχαιούς”, But they thrust the Achaeans straight toward the deep trench; and similarly 13.193; 16.45; 569; 17.274. (For the use of the middle in similar examples, see 147.) [*] 149. Reciprocal middle. As the reflexive may be used for the reciprocal, so the middle, which represents the reflexive relation, may be used to intimate the reciprocal relation. Such verbs are “μάχεσθαι”, se battre, sich schlagen, “ἀγωνίζεσθαι, διαλέγεσθαι”, and many other deponent verbs. “ἐν χερσὶ γενόμενοι ἐμάχοντο”, THUC.7.5.2; Coming to close quarters they fought, but “ἀλλήλοις . . . ἐμάχοντο”, 3.77.2; They fought one another. THUC.7.5.2(see above). HDT.2.63: “κεφαλάς τε συναράσσονται”, They butt one another's heads. AR. Pl. 329-30: “τριωβόλου μὲν εἵνεκα” | “ὠστιζόμεσθ᾽ ἑκάστοτ᾽ ἐν τἦκκλησίᾳ”, We hustle one another; but Ach. 24-5: “ὠστιοῦνται . . . ἀλλήλοισι”. SOPH. O. C. 424: “ἧς ῾σξ. “μάχης”） νῦν ἔχονται κἀπαναίρονται δόρυ” . PIND. O. 1.98: “ταχυτὰς ποδῶν ἐρίζεται” = “ταχεῖς πόδες ἐρίζονται”. HES. O. et D. 37: “κλῆρον ἐδασσάμεθ”（“α”). HOM. Il. 23.735: “μηκέτ᾽ ἐρείδεσθον”, No longer press each the other. [*] 150. Causative middle. As the active is often used of what one does by an agent, so the middle is used of that which the subject has done for itself. This is an occasional use of the middle, but it is not a characteristic use, and must not be pressed as differentiating it from the active. “Θεμιστοκλῆς Κλεόφαντον τὸν υἱὸν ἱππέα μὲν ἐδιδάξατο ἀγαθόν,” PLATO, Men. 93D ; Themistocles had his son K. taught to be a good horseman, but ibid. 94 B: “τούτους . . . ἱππέας μὲν ἐδίδαξεν οὐδενὸς χείρους Ἀθηναίων” . PLATO , Meno, 93 D (see above). Protag. 325 B: “οἱ ἀγαθοὶ ἄνδρες . . . τὰ μὲν ἄλλα διδάσκονται τοὺς υἱεῖς . . . τὰ μὲν ἄλλα ἄρα τοὺς υἱεῖς διδάσκονται”, but 324 D: “οἱ ἄνδρες οἱ ἀγαθοὶ τὰ μὲν ἄλλα τοὺς αὑτῶν υἱεῖς διδάσκουσιν, ἃ διδασκάλων ἔχεται”. THUC.1.132.2: “ἐπὶ τὸν τρίποδα . . . ἠξίωσεν” (sc. “Παυσανίας”) “ἐπιγράψασθαι αὐτὸς ἰδίᾳ τὸ ἐλεγεῖον τόδε”, but § 3: “τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐλεγεῖον οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι ἐξεκόλαψαν εὐθὺς τότε . . . καὶ ἐπέγραψαν ὀνομαστὶ τὰς πόλεις κτἑ”. HDT.1.50: “ἐποιέετο” [sc. “Κροῖσος”] “δὲ καὶ λέοντος εἰκόνα χρυσοῦ ἀπέφθου”, Croesus had an image of a lion made for himself out of refined gold. AR. Eq. 5: “πληγὰς ἀεὶ προστρίβεται τοῖς οἰκέταις” (see v. 64). [*] 151. Active and reflexive. Direct reflexive actions are commonly expressed by the active and the reflexive; so, regularly, unnatural actions, and actions which circumstances have made unnatural or difficult. “ἐμαυτὸν φιλῶ”, DEM. [47]DEM., 73; I love myself. “ῥίπτει αὑτὸν εἰς τὴν θάλατταν”, DEM.32.6; He throws himself into the sea. DEM.32.6(see above). [47]DEM., 73(see above). AESCHIN.1.53: “οὐκ ἐνουθέτησεν ἑαυτόν”. ISOC. [1]ISOC., 15: “ἔθιζε σεαυτόν”. 2.29: “ἔθιζε σαυτόν”. 5.118: “ἐθίζειν σαυτὸν χρή”. PLATO, Legg. 861A: “ἐρωτῶμεν ἡμᾶς αὐτούς”, Let us ask ourselves. Phaedo 96 A: “πολλάκις ἐμαυτὸν ἄνω κάτω μετέβαλλον”. Theaet. 148 E. XEN. An. 1.2.7: “ὁπότε γυμνάσαι βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵππους”. Hell. 1.6.10: “οὐκ ἐδυνάμην ἐμαυτὸν πεῖσαι”, I could not persuade myself. THUC.2.4.4: “ἔρριψαν . . . σφᾶς αὐτούς”. 4.38.3: “τὰ ὅπλα παρέδοσαν καὶ σφᾶς αὐτούς” . HDT.2.116: “οὐδαμῇ ἄλλῃ ἀνεπόδισε ἑωυτόν” (sc. “Ὅμηρος”). 3.36: “ἴσχε καὶ καταλάμβανε σεωυτόν”. AR. Vesp. 286-7: “μηδ᾽ οὕτως σεαυτὸν” | “ἔσθιε”, Stop gnawing at yourself so. Ibid. 996: “ἔπαιρε σαυτόν”. Ibid. 1213: “χύτλασον σεαυτόν”, Dump yourself. Thesm. 230: “ἔχ᾽ ἀτρέμα σαυτόν”. EUR. Alc. 188: “κἄρριψεν αὑτήν”. Ibid. 250: “ἔπαιρε σαυτήν”. Ibid. 788: “εὔφραινε σαυτόν”. SOPH. El. 988: “παῦσον δὲ σαυτήν”. AESCHYL. P.V. 748: “ἔρριψ᾽ ἐμαυτήν”. [*] 152. au)to\s e(auto/n. Extreme unnaturalness is expressed by “αὐτὸς ἑαυτόν” and the like. “αὐτὸς αὑτὸν διέφθειρεν”, XEN. Hell. 7.4.19; He made away with himself. AESCHIN.3.233: “καταλέλυκεν αὐτὸς τὴν αὑτοῦ δυναστείαν”. PLATO, Menex. 243D: “ἡμεῖς δὲ αὐτοὶ ἡμᾶς αὐτοὺς καὶ ἐνικήσαμεν καὶ ἡττήθημεν”. XEN. Hell. 7.4.19 (see above). HDT.1.93: “ἐκδιδοῦσι δὲ αὐταὶ ἑωυτάς”. [*] 153. Middle with reflexive forms. The reflexive relation may be brought out more clearly by adding the reflexive forms to the middle. “ὑπὸ νύκτα τὴν σωτηρίαν αὑτοῖς ἔμελλον πορίζεσθαι”, LYCURG.70; Under cover of the night they were about to provide safety for themselves. LYCURG, 70 (see above). AESCHIN.1.132: “κατασκοπούμενος ἑαυτόν”. ANTIPHON, 5.13: “αὐτὸς σαυτῷ νόμον θέμενος”, Having laid down a law for yourself. XEN. [R. A.] 2.10: “ὁ δὲ δῆμος αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἰκοδομεῖται ἰδίᾳ παλαίστρας πολλάς”. PIND. O. 13.53: “Μήδειαν θεμέναν γάμον αὐτᾷ” (= “αὑτᾷ”). [*] 154. Of course when the middle has acquired a special significance this is necessary. “ἑαυτὸν . . . λύσασθαι”, ANTIPHON, 5.63; To ransom himself. ANTIPHON, 5.63 (see above). PLATO, Protag. 346B: “αὐτοὺς ἑαυτοὺς παραμυθεῖσθαι”. COM. “Ἑαυτὸν τιμωρούμενος”, Self-Tormentor (Title of a play by MENANDER). HOM. Il. 10.378: “ἐμὲ λύσομαι”, I will ransom myself. [*] 155. Middle and accusative of the part affected. Of course an accusative of the part affected may be used with the middle. “τὰ μέτωπα κόπτονται μαχαίρῃσι”, HDT.2.61: They gash their foreheads with knives. HDT.2.61(see above). 3.14: “ἐπλήξατο τὴν κεφαλήν”, He smote his head. 4.71: “τρίχας περικείρονται, βραχίονας περιτάμνονται, μέτωπον καὶ ῥῖνα καταμύσσονται”. 4.75: “οὐ γὰρ δὴ λούονται ὕδατι τὸ παράπαν τὸ σῶμα”. AR. Eccl. 63: “ἀλειψαμένη τὸ σῶμ᾽ ὅλον”. SOPH. Ai. 245: “κάρα καλύμμασι κρυψάμενον” . PIND. N. 10.44: “ἐπιεσσάμενοι νῶτον μαλακαῖσι κρόκαις”. HES. Sc. 243: “κατὰ δ᾽ ἐδρύπτοντο παρειάς”. HOM. Od. 6.224-5: “ἐκ ποταμοῦ χρόα νίζετο . . . ἅλμην”. Il. 18.30-1: “χερσὶ δὲ πᾶσαι” | “στήθεα πεπλήγοντο”. [*] 156. Details of difference between the active and the middle. The details of difference between the active and the middle belong to the dictionary. Many of them are conventionally of great importance. “ἀποδίδωμι” is I render, restore, “ἀποδίδομαι”, I sell; “δανείζω” is I lend (on interest), “δανείζομαι”, I borrow (on interest); “κίχρημι” is I lend to use, “κίχραμαι”, I borrow to use, the aorist in use being “ᾐτησάμην; ἔχω” means I have, “ἔχομαι”, I cling to; “ἔγημα” signifies I married, duxi (of the man), “ἐγημάμην”, I got married, nupsi (of the woman); “μισθῶ” is I let, “μισθοῦμαι”, I hire. There is a long string of differences between “ποιεῖν” and “ποιεῖσθαι” with verbal nouns in which the active gives the literal side “to fashion,” “to bring about,” whereas the middle serves to form a periphrasis with the dependent substantive for the corresponding verb. So “λόγον ποιεῖν” is to compose a speech, “λόγον ποιεῖσθαι”, to make a speech (“λέγειν”); “ὁδὸν ποιεῖν” is to construct a road, “ὁδὸν ποιεῖσθαι”, to make one's way (“ὁδεύειν”); “εἰρήνην ποιῆσαι”, to bring about a peace (between two contending parties), “εἰρήνην ποιεῖσθαι”, to make peace (with an enemy); “νόμους τιθέναι”, to be a “νομοθέτης”, to be a lawgiver (for those who desire legislators), “νόμους τίθεσθαι”, to make laws for one's own state. Regularly “ἐκκλησίαν ποιεῖν”, to convoke an assembly. A few examples by way of illustration are given here. ISOC.6.1: “τοσαύτην πεποίημαι τὴν μεταβολήν”. AND.3.1: “ὅτι μὲν εἰρήνην ποιεῖσθαι δικαίαν ἄμεινόν ἐστιν ἢ πολεμεῖν”. 3.2: “ὁ δῆμος ὁ Αθηναίων εἰρήνην ἐποιήσατο πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους”. PLATO, Lach. 180C: “ἐνταῦθα ἀεὶ τὰς διατριβὰς ποιούμενον”. XEN. An. 7.6.41: “ταῦτα ἀποδόμενος οὔτε Σεύθῃ ἀπέδωκεν οὔτε ἡμῖν τὰ γιγνόμενα . . . ἢν οὖν σωφρονῶμεν, ἑξόμεθα αὐτοῦ”. THUC.1.40.2: “ὅστις μὴ τοῖς δεξαμένοις . . . πόλεμον ἀντ᾽ εἰρήνης ποιήσει”, but 5.17.2: “ξυνεχωρεῖτο ὥστε ἃ ἑκάτεροι πολέμῳ ἔσχον ἀποδόντας τὴν εἰρήνην ποιεῖσθαι” . HDT.7.42: “ἐποιέετο δὲ τὴν ὁδόν”. 8.40: “βουλὴν . . . ποιήσασθαι” (= “βουλεύσασθαι”). 8.74: “τῇσι νηυσὶ οὐκ ἐλπίζοντες ἐλλάμψεσθαι” (act. = to shine upon Not expecting to make a brilliant record with their ships. AR. Ach. 830: “τὰ χοιρίδἰ ἀπέδου”, You sold the pigs, but Vesp. 1128: “ἀπέδωκ”（“α”) . . . “τῷ κναφεῖ τριώβολον”, I paid the fuller three obols. Lys. 1056-7: “ὅστις ἃν . . . δανείσηται . . . μὴ ἀποδῷ” , but Pax, 374: “δάνεισον τρεῖς δραχμάς”. AESCHYL. fr. 13: “σοὶ μὲν γαμεῖσθαι μόρσιμον, γαμεῖν δ᾽ ἐμοί”. ANACR. fr. 86: “καὶ θάλαμος, ἐν τῷ κεῖνος οὐκ ἔγημεν ἀλλ᾽ ἐγήματο”. THEOGN. 32: “ἀλλ᾽ αἰεὶ τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἔχεο”. HOM. Od. 14.393: “ἀλλ᾽ ἄγε νῦν ῥήτρην ποιησόμεθ”（“α”). Ibid. 21.70-1: “οὐδέ τιν᾽ ἄλλην” | “μύθου ποιήσασθαι ἐπισχεσίην ἐδύνασθε”. Il. 7.2: “Ζεὐς δὲ θεῶν ἀγορὴν ποιήσατο τερπικέραυνος”.Passive Voice
[*] 157. The Passive Voice denotes that the subject receives the action of the verb. “Πολύστρατος . . . συνελήφθη”, ANDOC.1.13; Polystratos was arrested. “ὁ τῆς πόλεως . . . κόσμος . . . συνταράττεται”, DEM.25.19: The constitution of the state is disturbed. “ἐτέθυτο τὰ ἱερά”, ANTIPHON, 1.17. “ἀπεφέρετο ἐκ τοῦ δεσμωτηρίου τεθνεώς,” LYS.12.18. “λέγεται”, DEM.24.212; It is said. “διδάσκεται ἄνθρωπος”, PLATO , Meno, 87 C, which is actively expressed by “ἄνθρωπος μανθάνει”, PLATO, Soph. 262C. [*] 158. Instrument, means, or cause. With the passive, the instrument, means, or cause is expressed by the dative or by a prepositional phrase, for which see Prepositions. Dative: “λίθῳ πεπληγμένος”, AR. Ach. 1218; Struck with a stone. “χρήμασι πεισθῆναι”, THUC.2.21.1. “λιμῷ διαφθαρῆναι”, THUC.3.57.3; To perish of (by, with) hunger. DEM.23.156: “ληφθήσεται . . . τῷ . . . λιμῷ”. 55.30: “μεγάλοις λίθοις ἀποικοδομηθέντος”. PLATO, Rpb. 469E: “οἷς ἂν” (sc. “λίθοις”) “βληθῶσι”. Tim. 38 E: “δεσμοῖς τε ἐμψύχοις . . . δεθέντα”. XEN. An. 2.3.1: “βασιλεὺς ἐξεπλάγη τῇ ἐφόδῳ”. THUC.1.126.8: “τρυχόμενοι τῇ προσεδρείᾳ”. 2.21.1 (see above). 3.57.3 (see above). 7.47.2: “νόσῳ . . . ἐπιέζοντο” , They were pinched with sickness. HDT.1.34: “αἰχμῇ σιδηρέῃ βληθέντα”. 1.41: “συμφορῇ πεπληγμένον”. AR. Ach. 1218 (see above). Nub. 24: “εἴθ᾽ ἐξεκόπην πρότερον τὸν ὀφθαλμὸν λίθῳ” . Vesp. 1296: “ἐγὼ δ᾽ ἀπόλωλα στιζόμενος βακτηρίᾳ”. AESCHYL. P.V. 237: “πημοναῖσι κάμπτομαι”, I am bowed with thrills of anguish. Sept. 607: “πληγ̔εὶς θεοῦ μάστιγι”, Smitten with god's scourge. PIND. P. 3.48: “πολιῶ γαλκῶ μέλη τετρωμένοι”. HOM. Od. 10.532: “ἐσφαγμένα νηλέι χαλκῷ”. Il. 8.455: “πληγέντε κεραυνῷ”. [*] 159. Agent. The agent of the passive is put in the genitive with “ὑπό”. “οἱ . . . τύραννοι . . . ὑπὸ Λακεδαιμονίων κατελύθησαν”, THUC.1.18.1; Tyrants were abolished by the Lacedaemonians. DEM.21.36: “ὑπὸ Πολυζήλου πληγῆναι”. 21.74: “ἐγὼ δ᾽ ὑπ̓ ἐχθροῦ . . . ὑβριζόμην”. [47]DEM., 15: “ἐπλήγης ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ”. 54.33: “ὑφ᾽ οὗ γε πρώτου τ᾽ ἐπλήγην καὶ μάλισθ̓ ὑβρίσθην”. PLATO, Conv. 217E: “ἔτι δὲ τὸ τοῦ δηχθέντος ὑπὸ τοῦ ἔχεως πάθος κἀμὲ ἔχει”. XEN. An. 1.3.10: “νομίζει ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ ἠδικῆσθαι”. THUC.1.18.1(see above). 4.12.1: “ἀνεκόπη ὑπὸ τῶν Ἀθηναίων” . HDT.1.35: “ἐξεληλαμένος . . . ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρός”. AR. Av. 285: “ὑπὸ τῶν συκοφαντῶν τίλλεται” . SOPH. Ai. 164: “ὑπὸ τοιούτων ἀνδρῶν θορυβῇ” . PIND. N. 2.20-2: “ἀλλὰ Κορινθίων ὑπὸ φωτῶν . . . ὀκτὼ στεφάνοις ἔμιχθεν ἤδη”. HOM. Od. 9.66: “Κικόνων ὕπο δῃωθέντες”. Il. 13.675-6: “δηιόοντο” | “λαοὶ ὑπ᾽ Ἀργεΐων”. For the so-called Dative of the Agent with the Passive and with Verbals, see Dative. [*] 160. Other prepositions than “ὑπό” are sometimes used with special verbs and in special authors. “ἐκ”, out of, often in poetry and in Herodotus; in Attic prose with the notion of emanation from a source. ANTIPHON, 2 “δ” 1: “τῶν ἐξ ἐμοῦ πραχθέντων”. PLATO, Theaet. 171B: “ἐξ ἁπάντων . . . ἀμφισβητήσεται”. XEN. An. 1.1.6: “πόλεις . . . ἐκ βασιλέως δεδομέναι”, Cities a gift of the king's. THUC.1.20.2: “ἐκ τῶν ξυνειδότων σφίσιν Ἱππίᾳ μεμηνῦσθαι”, “That information had been conveyed to Hippias from the body of their fellow-conspirators.”—Shilleto. HDT.3.62: “τὰ ἐντεταλμένα ἐκ τοῦ Μάγου”, The orders given of, by the Magus. HOM. Il. 2.668-9: “ἐφίληθεν” | “ἐκ Διός”, They were loved of Zeus. [*] 161. “πρός”, before (comp. Engl. “from before”). DEM.29.20: “εἰ . . . μὴ προωμολόγητο πρὸς τοῦδ᾽ ἐλεύθερος εἶναι”.2 XEN. An. 1.9.20: “φίλους γε μὴν . . . ὁμολογεῖται πρὸς πάντων κράτιστος δὴ γενέσθαι θεραπεύειν”, He is acknowledged on all hands, etc. HDT.8.111: “Ἄνδριοι . . . αἰτηθέντες πρὸς Θεμιστοκλέος χρήματα οὐκ ἔδοσαν”. AR. Nub. 1122: “πρὸς ἡμῶν οἷα πείσεται κακά” . EUR. Med. 255-6: “ὑβρίζομαι πρὸς ἀνδρός” , and similarly elsewhere. SOPH. El. 790: “πρὸς τῆσδ᾽ ὑβρίζῃ μητρός”, and similarly elsewhere. AESCHYL. P.V. 767: “ἦ πρὸς δάμαρτος ἐξανίσταται θρόνων”; PIND. O. 2.25-6: “πένθος δὲ πιτνεῖ βαρὺ” | “κρεσσόνων πρὸς ἀγαθῶν”.. 11.831: “τά σε προτί φασιν Ἀχιλλῆος δεδιδάχθαι” . [*] 162. “παρά”, “on the part of,” chiefly with verbs of giving, taking, sending. DEM.21.170: “τούτοις γὰρ δὴ μέγισται δέδονται δωρεαὶ παρ᾽ ὑμῶν”. XEN. An. 1.9.1: “παρὰ πάντων ὁμολογεῖται”, It is acknowledged on all sides. HOM. Il. 15.121-2: “ἔνθα κ᾽ ἔτι μείζων τε καὶ ἀργαλεώτερος ἄλλος” | “πὰρ Διὸς ἀθανάτοισι χόλος καὶ μῆνις ἐτύχθη”. [*] 163. “διά”, through (of the mediator), a post-Homeric construction. Never to be confounded with “διά” w. acc. “δἰ ἐμὲ ἐσώθης”, CTESIAS ap. DEM. [PHAL. ] 213; Thanks to me, it is owing to me that, you were saved. “δἰ ἐμοῦ ἐσώθης”, Through me you were saved. A. J. P. xi (1890), 372. ISOC. Ep.4.2: “ἐβουλόμην ἂν αὐτὸν συσταθῆναί σοι δἰ ἡμῶν”, I should have preferred that he had been commended to you through us (me). AR. Eq. 76: “διὰ σοῦ ταῦτα πάντα πέρναται”, Through you all these things are sold. [*] 164. “ἀπό”, Latin ab, found chiefly in Thucydides. THUC.1.17: “ἐπράχθη τε ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν οὐδὲν ἔργον ἀξιόλογον”, No considerable deed was performed by them. (Some uniformitarians would write “ὑπό”). [*] 165. “ὑπό” with the dative revives the plastic “under”-sense, and is poetical. HOM. Il. 13.668: “ὑπὸ Τρώεσσι δαμῆναι”, To be quelled beneath the might of the Trojans. [*] 166. Interchange of instrument and agent. When the instrument is considered as an agent or the agent as an instrument the construction is reversed. The former construction, which rests on personification, is very common; the latter in prose is confined chiefly to military phrases, for which see Dative. “ἁλίσκεται ὑπὸ τριήρους”, DEM. [53]DEM., 6; He is captured by a trireme. “ἠνάγκασμαι ὑπὸ τῶν γεγενημένων τούτου κατηγορεῖν,” LYS. 12.3 ; I have been compelled by what has happened to undertake to prosecute this man. DEM.6.8, 8.71: “οὐδὲ προήχθην οὔθ᾽ ὑπὸ κέρδους οὔθ̓ ὑπὸ φιλοτιμίας”. 20.166: “ὑπὸ τῆς . . . κραυγῆς καὶ βίας καὶ ἀναισχυντίας”. 23.143: “ἐξεδίδοντ᾽ ἂν ὑπὸ τοῦ ὑμετέρου ψηφίσματος”. [43]DEM., 72: “τί ποτ᾽ οἴεσθ̓ ἡμᾶς πάσχειν ἐν τῷ παρεληλυθότι χρόνῳ ὑπὸ τούτων καὶ ὑπὸ τῆς ὕβρεως τῆς τούτων”. [53]DEM., 6(see above). 55.30: “διεφθαρμένον” (masc.) “ὑπὸ νόσου”. AESCHIN.1.42 AESCHIN., 1.90 AESCHIN., 3.218: “οὐκ ἀναγκαζόμενος ὑπὸ τῆς ἐν τῇ φύσει δαπάνης”. LYS.1.49: “ὑπὸ τῶν νόμων . . . ἐνεδρεύεσθαι” . PLATO, Rpb. 609E: “ὑπὸ τῆς τῶν σιτίων πονηρίας . . . οὐκ οἰόμεθα δεῖν σῶμα ἀπόλλυσθαι”. XEN. Conv. 2.26: “οὐ βιαζόμενοι ὑπὸ τοῦ οἴνου μεθύειν”. Oec. 16.14: “οὐδαμῶς ἂν μᾶλλον ἡ μὲν ὕλη . . . αὐαίνοιτο ὑπὸ τοῦ καύματος, ἡ δὲ γῆ ὀπτῷτο ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου”. THUC.1.76.2: “ὑπὸ τῶν μεγίστων νικηθέντες, τιμῆς καὶ δέους καὶ ὠφελίας”. 1.126.10: “ὑπὸ τοῦ λιμοῦ” , but 3.57.3: “λιμῷ” . 7.69.2: “ὁ δὲ Νικίας ὑπὸ τῶν παρόντων ἐκπεπληγμένος” . HDT.8.129: “διεφθάρησαν ὑπὸ τῆς θαλάσσης”. AR. Ach. 18: “ἐδήχθην ὑπὸ κονίας τὰς ὀφρῦς”, My eyebrows were bitten by lye. SOPH. Tr. 1104: “τυφλῆς ὑπ᾽ ἄτης ἐκπεπόρθημαι”. PIND. O. 2.21: “ἐσλῶν γὰρ ὑπὸ χαρμάτων πῆμα θνᾴσκει” (171). HOM. Od. 5.393: “μεγάλου ὑπὸ κύματος ἀρθείς”.3 [*] 167. Permissive passive. The passive is sometimes used in a permissive sense. “τί ποιοῦσιν; . . . οὐ καταλιπόντες τὴν χώραν . . . ᾤχοντο, . . . ἀλλ᾽ ἐπολιορκοῦντο”, LYCURG.85; What did they do? . . . They suffered themselves to be besieged. LYCURG.40: “γυναῖκας . . . ἀναξίως αὑτῶν καὶ τῆς πόλεως ὁρωμένας”. Ibid. 85 (see above). R. L. 1.5: “ἔθηκε γάρ, αἰδεῖσθαι μὲν εἰσιόντα ὀφθῆναι, αἰδεῖσθαι δ᾽ ἐξιόντα”. AR, Ach. 408-9: “ἀλλ᾽ ἐκκυκλήθητ᾽. ΕΥΡ. ἀλλ̓ ἀδύνατον. ΔΙΚ. ἀλλ̓ ὅμως”. | “ΕΥΡ. ἀλλ᾽ ἐκκυκλήσομαι: καταβαίνειν δ᾽ οὐ σχολή”. Nub. 494: “φέρ᾽ ἴδω, τί δρᾷς, ἤν τίς σε τύπτῃ; τύπτομαι” . [*] 168. Future middle in a passive sense. The future middle and the future passive are coincident as to form in the earlier language,4 and even in prose the future middle is often used as a future passive. As the subsequent future passive forms were developed on the basis of the passive aorists in -“ην” and -“θην”, they naturally incline to the aoristic sense, and this aoristic sense becomes more distinct when the future middle is used as a passive. Hence the contrasted groups.
| DURATIVE. | AORISTIC. | |
| “βλάπτω”, I hurt. | “βλάψομαι” | “βλαβήσομαι” |
| “τιμάω”, I honor. | “τιμήσομαι” | “τιμηθήσομαι” |
| “ὠφελέω”, I help. | “ὠφελήσομαι” | “ὠφεληθήσομαι” |
| “δηλόω”, I manifest. | “δηλώσεται” | “δηλωθήσεται” |
. O. R. 272: “φθερεῖσθαι” . PIND. P. 4.10-1: “φαμὶ γὰρ . . . Ἐπάφοιο κόραν” | “ἀστέων ῥίζαν φυτεύσεσθαι”. HOM. Od. 1.123: “παρ᾽ ἄμμι φιλήσεαι”. Il. 12.66: “ὅθι τρώσεσθαι ὀΐω”. 14.481: “ὧδε κατακτενέεσθε καὶ ὔμμες”. 24.728-9: “πρὶν γὰρ πόλις ἥδε κατ᾽ ἄκρης” | “πέρσεται”.6 [*] 169. Aorist passive for aorist middle. And on the other hand the passive aorist is often used to the exclusion of the aorist middle; “ἠράσθην”, I fell in love (was enamored), “ἐδυνήθην”, I could (was enabled), “ἐβουλήθην”, I would (was decided), “ἐπορεύθην”, I proceeded (was forwarded).7 The following is a list of the most important of these verbs: “αἰδεῖσθαι, ἁμιλλᾶσθαι, ἀρνεῖσθαι, ἄχθεσθαι, βούλεσθαι, δεῖσθαι, διαλέγεσθαι, διανοεῖσθαι, δύνασθαι, ἐναντιοῦσθαι, ἐνθυμεῖσθαι, ἐννοεῖσθαι, ἐπιμελεῖσθαι, ἐρᾶν, εὐλαβεῖσθαι, ἥδεσθαι, οἴεσθαι, πορεύεσθαι, προθυμεῖσθαι, φιλοτιμεῖσθαι”. [*] 170. Passive of middle verbs. The passive serves on occasion as the passive of the middle as well as the passive of the active. “βιάζομαι”, I suffer violence (I am forced); “ἀφαιροῦμαι”, I am robbed; “ᾑρέθην”, I was chosen. Not so, however, in Homer. DEM.28.14: “οὗτος δὲ καὶ μεταπεμφθῆναι φάσκων ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρός” (cf. ibid.: “εἰσελθεῖν μὲν οὔ φησιν ὡς τὸν μεταπεμψάμενον”). LYS.13.23: “ἐπειδὴ . . . τοῦτο τὸ ψήφισμα ἐψηφίσθη, κατέρχονται . . . οἱ α ἱρεθέντες τῶν βουλευτῶν” . Ibid. 29: “ἐψηφίσθη” . PLATO, Legg. 755E: “πρὶν . . . βουλὴν ᾑρῆσθαι”. 770 A: “ᾕρηνται δὲ ἡμῖν νομοφύλακες”. XEN. Conv. 2.26: “οὐ βιαζόμενοι” (166). Mem. 3.2.3: “βασιλεὺς αἱρεῖται οὐχ ἵνα ἑαυτοῦ καλῶς ἐπιμέληται, ἀλλ᾽ ἵνα κτἑ”. (cf. ibid.: “στρατηγοὺς αἱροῦνται”). THUC.7.77.3: “ἀποχρώντως ἤδη τετιμωρήμεθα”. HDT.1.70: “τάχα δὲ ἂν καὶ οἱ ἀποδόμενοι λέγοιεν . . . ὡς ἀπαιρεθείησαν ὑπὸ Σαμίων” [cf. ibid.: “λέγουσι ὡς . . . Σάμιοι ἀπελοίατο αὐτόν” (sc. “τὸν κρητῆρα”）]. AR. Nub. 758: “εἴ σοι γράφοιτο . . . δίκη” (cf. 1481-2: “εἴτ᾽ αὐτοὺς γραφὴν διωκάθω γραψάμενος” ). SOPH. Ant. 1073: “ἐκ σοῦ βιάζονται τάδε” . [*] 171. Active serving as a passive. Intransitive verbs of passive signification are construed as passives. So “ἀποθνῄσκω” is regularly used as the passive of “ἀποκτείνω, εὖ πάσχω” of “εὖ ποιῶ, ἀκούω” of “λέγω, πίπτω” of “βάλλω, φεύγω” of “διώκω”. “ὑπὸ δὲ τοῦ ἰατροῦ φάσκων αὐτὸν ἀποθανεῖν”, ANTIPHON, 4 “γ” 5; Alleging him to have been killed by his physician. “ἐκπίπτουσιν οἱ Λακωνισταί”, XEN. Hell. 1.1.32; The Laconizers are cast out. “οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι . . . πράγματα εἶχον ὑπὸ . . . τῶν λῃστῶν”, XEN. Hell. 5.1.5; The Athenians were harassed by the pirates. “εὖ πάσχουσα” (sc. “γῆ”) “εὖ ποιεῖ”, XEN. Oec. 20.14; Land, when well treated, treats you well. DEM. [49], 1: “φεύγει νῦν ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ ταύτην τὴν δἰκην” . ANTIPHON, 4 “γ” 5: “ἀποθανεῖν” (see above). 5.48: “οὐδ᾽ οὗτοι ἀποθνῄσκουσιν ὑπ̓ αὐτῶν τῶν προσηκόντων”. PLATO, Apol. 35D: “ἀσεβείας φεύγοντα ὑπὸ Μελήτου τουτουΐ”. Hipp. Mai. 304 E: “συμβέβηκε δή μοι . . . κακῶς μὲν ὑφ᾽ ὑμῶν ἀκούειν καὶ ὀνειδίζεσθαι, κακῶς δὲ ὑπ̓ ἐκείνου”. XEN. Hell. 1.1.32: “ἐκπίπτουσιν” (see above). Ibid. 5.1.5: “πράγματα εἶχον” (see above). Oec. 20.14: “εὖ πάσχουσα” (see above). THUC.1.20.2: “Ἵππαρχον οἴονται ὑφ᾽ Ἁρμοδίου καὶ Ἀριστογείτονος τύραννον ὄντα ἀποθανεῖν” (cf. ibid.: “Ἱππάρχῳ περιτυχόντες . . . ἀπέκτειναν”). 3.58.4: “ἀποθανόντας ὑπὸ Μήδων” . HDT.4.125: “ὁρέοντες καὶ τοὺς ὁμούρους φεύγοντας ὑπὸ Σκυθέων καὶ τεταραγμένους”. 8.16: “ὁ γὰρ Ξέρξεω στρατὸς . . . αὐτὸς ὑπ᾽ ἑωυτοῦ ἔπιπτε”. AR. Ach. 167-8: “ταυτὶ περιείδεθ᾽ . . . πάσχοντά με” | . . . “καὶ ταῦθ᾽ ὑπ̓ ἀνδρῶν βαρβάρων”; PIND. O. 2.21: “ἐσλῶν γὰρ ὑπὸ χαρμάτων πῆμα θνᾴσκει”. HOM. Il. 1.242-3: “εὖτ᾽ ἂν πολλοὶ ὑφ̓ Ἕκτορος” . . . | “θνῄσκοντες πίπτωσι”. 3.61: “ὅς τ᾽ εἶσιν διὰ δουρὸς ὑπ̓ ἀνέρος”. 3.128: “ἔπασχον”. 6.74: “ἀνέβησαν” . 13.796: “εἶσι”. 16.519: “βαρύθει”. 17.428: “πεσόντος”. 616: “ὤλεσε θυμόν”. 21.22-3: “ὡς δ᾽ ὑπὸ δελφῖνος . . . ἰχθύες ἄλλοι” | “φεύγοντες πιμπλᾶσι μυχοὺς κτἑ”. [*] 172. Note that the element of the disagreeable enters into most of these verbs, so that the intransitive construction is an evasion of responsibility. “εὖ πάσχω” and “εὖ ἀκούω” merely serve to match “κακῶς πάσχω” and “κακῶς ἀκούω”. Cf. A. J. P. vii (1886), 42, Note 2. [*] 173. Passives of intransitive verbs. Passives of intransitive verbs are rare. “ὄνος ὕεται”, PROVERB; A donkey in the rain. ISOC.11.22: “διακεκινδυνευμένοις φαρμάκοις” (risky medicines) “χρωμένην”. ANT. 5.75: “ὅμως δ᾽ οὖν κεκινδυνεύσεται”, periclitatum erit. THUC.3.23.5: “ἡ νὺξ . . . ὑπονιφομένη πολὺ τὸ ὕδωρ ἐν αὐτῇ ἐπεποιήκει”, The snowiness of the night had caused a rise in the water. HDT.2.22: “εἰ ἐχιόνιζε, ὕετο ἂν ταῦτα τὰ χωρία”, If there were any snowfall, these parts would have rain on them. 3.10: “ὕσθησαν γὰρ Θῆβαι αἱ Αἰγύπτιαι . . . οὐ γὰρ δὴ ὕεται τὰ ἄνω τῆς Αἰγύπτου τὸ παράπαν”. PIND. O. 10.76: “ἀείδετο δὲ πᾶν τέμενος”, The whole grove was full of song. HOM. Od. 6.131: “ὅς τ᾽” (sc. “λέων”) “εἶσ᾽ ὑόμενος”. [*] 174. Passive of verbs that take a genitive or dative. An active verb may be turned into the passive, even if it takes a genitive or a dative. But there are limits. “οὐκέτι δὲ ἀπειλοῦμαι, ἀλλ᾽ ἤδη ἀπειλῶ ἄλλοις”, XEN. Conv. 4.31; I am no longer threatened, but am now threatening others. “ἐρῶν τῆς γυναικὸς ἀντερᾶται”, Ibid. 8.3; Loving his wife, he is loved back again. ANTIPHON, 4 “β” 7: “οὐ δικαίως κατηγοροῦμαι” (but 2 “β” 10: “ἃ κατηγόρηταί μου”). PLATO, Euthyd. 273C: “εἰπὼν οὖν ταῦτα κατεφρονήθην ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῖν”. Lach. 181 B: “ἐπαινεῖ ὑπ᾽ ἀνδρῶν ἀξίων πιστεύεσθαι”. Rpb. 556 C-D: “ὅταν . . . μηδαμῇ ταύτῃ καταφρονῶνται οἱ πένητες ὑπὸ τῶν πλουσίων”. XEN. Conv. 4.31 (see above). Ibid. 8.3 (see above). Hiero, 11.11: “οὐ μόνον φιλοῖο ἄν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐρῷο ὑπ᾽ ἀνθρώπων”. Ibid. 11.15: “εὐδαιμονῶν γὰρ οὐ φθονηθήσει”. EUR. I. A. 1093-4: “ἁ δ᾽ ἀρετὰ κατόπισθεν θνατοῖς ἀμελεῖται”. SOPH. O. R. 111: “ἐκφεύγει δὲ τἀμελούμενον”. [*] 175. The verb must take the dative without an intervening outer object. So in “διδόναι πλοῦτον τοῖς Ἕλλησιν”, AR. Pax, 1321, “τοῖς Ἕλλησιν” cannot be turned into the subject of the passive. Rare is such a construction as “ἀναστήσαντες δὲ αὐτοὺς οἱ . . . ἐπιτετραμμένοι τὴν φυλακήν”, THUC.1.126.11, where we should expect “οἷς ἐπετέτραπτο ἡ φυλακή. τὴν φυλακήν” is a manner of inner object. [*] 176. Impersonal passive of verbs governing an oblique case. The impersonal construction which is the rule in Latin is rare in Greek. ANTIPHON, 1.31: “ἐμοὶ μὲν οὖν δεδιήγηται καὶ βεβοήθηται τῷ <τε> τεθνεῶτι καὶ τῷ νόμῳ”. Ibid. 2 “β” 13: “ἐφ᾽ οἷς κατηγορεῖταί μου” (v. l. “κατηγορεῖτε”). XEN. Vect. 1.1: “νομίζων, εἰ τοῦτο γένοιτο, . . . τῇ . . . πενίᾳ αὐτῶν ἐπικεκουρῆσθαι ἄν”. THUC.5.49.2: “ἀντέλεγον μὴ δικαίως σφῶν καταδεδικάσθαι”, They maintained that they had not been justly condemned, but “καταδεδ”. is probably middle: they had not justly condemned them. See Classen. [*] 177. Deponent verbs. The deponent is a middle form which has no active. “γίγνομαι”, I become, get, “θεάομαι”, I behold. On the passive aorists of these verbs, see 169. [*] 178. Passive of deponents expressed by periphrasis. The passive of deponents is often expressed by periphrasis. So especially outside of the passive form (1 aor. pass.). Familiar is “αἰτίαν ἔχειν” as passive of “αἰτιᾶσθαι”. “ναῦς αἰτίαν ἔχοντες προδοῦναι”, HYP. pro HYP. Eux.1; Being accused of having betrayed ships. HYP. pro Eux. 1 (see above). Ibid. 31: “τῶν γὰρ κατηγορηθέντων τὸ μὴ λαβὸν ἀπολογίαν ὑπὸ τῇ ὀργῇ τῶν δικαστῶν καταλείπεται”. DEM.18.200: “προδεδωκέναι πάντας ἂν ἔσχεν” (sc. “ἡ πόλις”) “αἰτίαν”. LYS.11.10: “εἰ . . . αἰτίαν ἔχοι” . PLATO, Rpb. 565B: “αἰτίαν δὴ ἔσχον ὑπὸ τῶν ἑτέρων . . . ὡς ἐπιβουλεύουσι τῷ δήμῳ”. THUC.2.41.3: “μόνη γὰρ τῶν νῦν ἀκοῆς κρείσσων ἐς πεῖραν ἔρχεται”. 7.81.5: “φειδώ . . . τις ἐγιγνετο” . THEOGN. 1265-6: “ἐγὼ δὲ . . . αἰδοῦς οὐδεμιῆς ἔτυχον”. HOM. Od. 2.136-7: “νέμεσις δέ μοι ἐξ ἀνθρώπων” | “ἔσσεται”. Il. 7.409-10: “φειδὼ . . . γίγνετ”（“αι”). 22.243-4: “μηδέ τι δούρων ἔστω φειδωλή”.“ ὤνθρωπε, μὴ δρᾶ τοὺς τεθνηκότας κακῶς:
εἰ γὰρ ποιήσεις, ἴσθι πημανούμενος
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